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HSSC CET · Flashcards

HSSC CET flashcards

927 cards from 81 fact-checked topic notes · English

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All cards by topic

Indian Classical Dance — General Awareness · 12 cards
Natyashastra
The foundational text (circa 200 BCE–200 CE) by Bharata Muni codifying Indian dance, drama, and music. All classical forms trace their theoretical roots here.
Nritta, Nritya, Natya
Nritta is pure rhythmic movement without expression; Nritya combines rhythm with emotion (bhava) and storytelling; Natya is dramatic dance with dialogue and plot.
Abhinaya
The art of expression—divided into Angika (body), Vachika (speech), Aharya (costume/makeup), and Sattvika (emotional states).
Rasa and Bhava
Rasa refers to the nine aesthetic sentiments (Navarasa) evoked in the audience; Bhava is the emotion portrayed by the dancer.
Gharana system
In Kathak, knowledge passed through family lineages—Lucknow, Jaipur, and Banaras gharanas each have distinct styles.
Devadasi tradition
Temple dancers who preserved Bharatanatyam and Odissi for centuries before 20th-century revivals brought these forms to concert stages.
Sangeet Natak Akademi recognition
India's national academy that officially classifies and promotes classical dance forms.
Bharatanatyam
State of Origin: Tamil Nadu · Meaning / Etymology: Bhava + Raga + Tala + Natyam · Key Feature: Temple dance, Aramandi posture, Carnatic music
Kathak
State of Origin: Uttar Pradesh (North India) · Meaning / Etymology: Katha = story · Key Feature: Only classical form with Hindu-Muslim synthesis; emphasis on footwork (tatkar) and spins (chakkar)
Kathakali
State of Origin: Kerala · Meaning / Etymology: Katha + Kali = story-play · Key Feature: All-male traditionally; elaborate makeup (chutti), stories from Ramayana/Mahabharata
Kuchipudi
State of Origin: Andhra Pradesh · Meaning / Etymology: Village Kuchipudi in Krishna district · Key Feature: Combines dance-drama; brass plate dance (Tarangam)
Odissi
State of Origin: Odisha · Meaning / Etymology: From Odra-Magadhi · Key Feature: Tribhangi posture (three bends); temple sculptures of Konark inspired it
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National Current Events — General Awareness · 12 cards
Flagship Government Schemes
Large-scale Central schemes addressing poverty, health, education, housing, and financial inclusion.
Ministries and Nodal Agencies
Each major scheme has a specific ministry or implementing body; knowing this linkage helps answer application-based questions.
Target Beneficiaries
Schemes are designed for specific groups — BPL families, women, farmers, MSMEs, senior citizens — understanding this helps eliminate wrong options.
Launch Year and Amendments
Original launch dates and significant modifications or extensions to schemes are important.
Budget Allocations
Major schemes with increased budgetary allocations or newly launched schemes in the Union Budget deserve special attention.
Digital India Initiatives
Apps, portals, and digital platforms launched for governance (UMANG, DigiLocker, GeM) are important.
Constitutional Amendments and Policy Changes
Recent amendments affecting governance, elections, or citizen rights appear as questions.
PM Awas Yojana (PMAY)
Year: 2015 · Ministry: Housing and Urban Affairs (PMAY-U); Rural Development (PMAY-G, 2016) · Key Feature: Housing for All — Urban and Rural components
Ayushman Bharat (PM-JAY)
Year: 2018 · Ministry: Health · Key Feature: Rs 5 lakh health cover per family per year
PM Kisan Samman Nidhi
Year: 2019 · Ministry: Agriculture · Key Feature: Rs 6,000 per year to farmer families in 3 instalments
Swachh Bharat Mission
Year: 2014 · Ministry: Jal Shakti (Gramin); Housing and Urban Affairs (Urban) · Key Feature: Open Defecation Free (ODF) India
Jal Jeevan Mission
Year: 2019 · Ministry: Jal Shakti · Key Feature: Functional tap water to every rural household by 2024
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Basics of Indian Economy — General Awareness · 12 cards
Three Sectors of Economy
The economy is divided into Primary (agriculture, mining, fishing), Secondary (manufacturing, construction), and Tertiary (services like banking, IT, transport) sectors.
Mixed Economy
India follows a mixed economy model where both public sector (government-owned) and private sector enterprises coexist. This was adopted after independence to balance socialist ideals with capitalist efficiency.
GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
Total monetary value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific period. It is the most common measure of economic size.
GNP (Gross National Product)
GDP plus net income earned by residents from abroad. GNP = GDP + Net Factor Income from Abroad.
Per Capita Income
Average income per person, calculated as National Income divided by total population. It indicates the standard of living.
Inflation
Sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services. Measured by WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index) in India.
Five-Year Plans
India followed centralised planning through Five-Year Plans from 1951 to 2017. NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission in 2015.
Human Development Index (HDI)
A composite index measuring life expectancy, education, and per capita income. Published by UNDP annually.
GDP
Total value of goods and services produced within domestic territory
GNP
GDP + Net Factor Income from Abroad (NFIA)
NNP
GNP − Depreciation
National Income
NNP at Factor Cost
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Indian Geography — General Awareness · 12 cards
Physiographic Divisions
India has six major divisions—Northern Mountains (Himalayas), Northern Plains (Indo-Gangetic), Peninsular Plateau (Deccan), Coastal Plains (Eastern and Western), Thar Desert, and Islands (Andaman-Nicobar, Lakshadweep).
Himalayan Ranges
Three parallel ranges—Himadri (Greater Himalayas, highest), Himachal (Lesser Himalayas), and Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas, youngest). All major north Indian rivers originate here.
Monsoon Mechanism
India's climate is dominated by the Southwest Monsoon (June–September, 75% rainfall) and Northeast Monsoon (October–December, mainly Tamil Nadu). The monsoon is driven by differential heating of land and sea.
River Classification
Himalayan rivers are perennial (snow-fed + rain-fed); Peninsular rivers are seasonal (rain-fed only). West-flowing rivers (Narmada, Tapi) form estuaries; east-flowing rivers (Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) form deltas.
Soil Types
Alluvial (most fertile, northern plains), Black/Regur (cotton cultivation, Deccan), Red (iron-rich, South India), Laterite (leached, Western Ghats), and Arid/Desert (Rajasthan).
Cropping Seasons
Kharif (June–October: rice, cotton, sugarcane), Rabi (October–March: wheat, mustard, gram), and Zaid (March–June: watermelon, cucumber, vegetables).
Mineral Belts
Chotanagpur Plateau is India's mineral heartland (coal, iron ore, mica). Petroleum in Bombay High, Gujarat, and Assam. Thorium reserves in Kerala (monazite sands).
Highest Peak
K2 (8,611 m) in PoK; Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) is highest in India proper
Longest River
Ganga (2,525 km in India); Indus longest if entire length counted
Largest State (Area)
Rajasthan (342,239 km²)
Highest Rainfall
Mawsynram (Meghalaya)—wettest place on Earth
Lowest Rainfall
Leh (Ladakh)—cold desert
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History — General Awareness · 12 cards
Periodisation of Indian History
Ancient (up to 1206 CE), Medieval (1206–1757 CE), Modern (1757 onwards). These cut-off dates mark the Delhi Sultanate's establishment and the Battle of Plassey respectively.
Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE)
Urban, bronze-age culture with planned cities (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro), advanced drainage, and no deciphered script. No iron, no horses, no temples found.
Vedic Age (c. 1500–600 BCE)
Aryans, Rigvedic pastoralism shifting to Later Vedic agriculture; varna system's origin; Sabha and Samiti as assemblies.
Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE)
First pan-Indian empire; Chandragupta founded it, Ashoka transformed it through Dhamma after Kalinga War.
Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE)
"Golden Age" of art, literature (Kalidasa), science (Aryabhata), and temple architecture.
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
Five dynasties—Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi. Introduced iqta system, new architectural styles (true arch, dome).
Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
Founded by Babur; Akbar's religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul, Din-i-Ilahi); Aurangzeb's expansion and eventual decline.
British Colonial Rule
East India Company rule (1757–1857), Crown rule (1858–1947). Economic drain, deindustrialisation, land revenue systems (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari).
Indian National Movement
Moderate phase (1885–1905), Extremist phase (1905–1919), Gandhian phase (1919–1947). Key movements: Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Quit India.
Indus Valley Civilisation
Key Date: c. 2600–1900 BCE · Essential Detail: Harappa discovered 1921, Mohenjo-Daro 1922
Battle of Ten Kings (Dasharajna)
Key Date: Rigvedic period · Essential Detail: Fought on River Ravi; Bharata tribe victorious
Mahavira's Nirvana
Key Date: 527 BCE · Essential Detail: 24th Tirthankara, founded Jainism's organised form
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Ancient India — General Awareness · 11 cards
Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC)
was a Bronze Age, urban civilisation known for town planning, drainage systems, standardised weights, and undeciphered script. Major sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi.
Vedic Age
is divided into Early/Rigvedic (c. 1500–1000 BCE) and Later Vedic (c. 1000–600 BCE). Society shifted from pastoral-tribal to settled agriculture; varna system became rigid; Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads composed.
Mahajanapadas (16 great states)
emerged c. 600 BCE; Magadha eventually dominated due to fertile land, iron ores, and strategic location.
Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE)
was India's first large, centralised empire. Chandragupta founded it; Ashoka expanded it and then embraced non-violence after Kalinga War.
Ashoka's Dhamma
promoted tolerance, non-violence, and moral governance — spread through rock and pillar edicts written mostly in Prakrit/Brahmi.
Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE)
is called the "Golden Age" for advances in art, science, literature, and stable administration under rulers like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II.
Feudatory & decentralised trends
began in later Gupta period, paving the way for regional kingdoms.
IVC
Rakhigarhi (Haryana) is among the largest Harappan sites.
Vedic
Rigveda is the oldest Veda; Saraswati river praised as "naditama" (best of rivers).
Maurya
Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nicator; Megasthenes wrote Indica.
Gupta
Samudragupta called "Napoleon of India" (Allahabad Pillar inscription by Harisena).
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Indian Constitution — General Awareness · 12 cards
The Preamble
is the introduction to the Constitution, declaring India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic. It outlines justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity as core objectives. The words "Socialist" and "Secular" were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976).
Lengthiest Written Constitution
Originally had 395 Articles in 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. Currently has 470+ Articles, 25 Parts, and 12 Schedules. This reflects India's diversity and the need for detailed provisions.
Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility
Some provisions can be amended by simple majority, some by special majority (a majority of the total membership of each House and 2/3rd of members present and voting), and some require ratification by half the states.
Federal System with Unitary Bias
India has a dual polity (Centre and States) but with a strong Centre. During emergencies, the system becomes virtually unitary.
Parliamentary Form of Government
Executive is responsible to the Legislature. The President is the nominal head; the Prime Minister is the real executive head.
Single Citizenship
Unlike the USA, India provides only one citizenship (Indian), regardless of the state of residence.
Independent Judiciary
The Supreme Court and High Courts are independent of the executive and legislature, with power of judicial review.
Universal Adult Franchise
Every citizen above 18 years (originally 21, reduced by 61st Amendment, 1988) has the right to vote without discrimination.
Drafting Committee Chairman
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Constituent Assembly President
Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Constitutional Advisor
B.N. Rau
Constituent Assembly formed
December 1946 (under Cabinet Mission Plan)
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Indian Music — General Awareness · 12 cards
Common origin
Both Hindustani and Carnatic music evolved from the ancient musical traditions described in Sama Veda and Natyashastra (by Bharata Muni, c. 200 BCE–200 CE).
Geographic division
Hindustani music developed in North India and was influenced by Persian and Islamic traditions after the 12th century. Carnatic music flourished in South India and retained more of the original Sanskrit-based tradition.
Raga
The melodic framework — a set of notes with specific rules for ascent (aroha), descent (avaroha), and characteristic phrases. Both systems use ragas, but nomenclature and treatment differ.
Tala
The rhythmic cycle. Hindustani music commonly uses talas like Teentaal (16 beats) and Ektaal (12 beats); Carnatic music uses Adi tala (8 beats) and others with more complex subdivisions.
Improvisation vs composition
Hindustani performances emphasise improvisation (alap, jod, jhala, gat). Carnatic performances are more composition-centric (kriti, varnam) with improvisation within defined structures.
Gharana system
Unique to Hindustani music — schools or lineages (e.g., Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur-Atrauli) with distinct styles. Carnatic music does not have a gharana system but has "baani" traditions.
Trinity of Carnatic Music
Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri (all 18th–19th century) — composers whose kritis form the foundation of Carnatic repertoire.
Region
Hindustani Music: North India · Carnatic Music: South India (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra, Kerala)
Language of compositions
Hindustani Music: Hindi, Braj Bhasha, Urdu · Carnatic Music: Telugu, Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada
Influence
Hindustani Music: Persian, Mughal court traditions · Carnatic Music: Sanskrit, Bhakti movement
Main vocal forms
Hindustani Music: Dhrupad, Khayal, Thumri, Tappa, Ghazal · Carnatic Music: Kriti, Varnam, Padam, Javali, Tillana
Key instruments (melodic)
Hindustani Music: Sitar, Sarod, Santoor, Bansuri, Shehnai · Carnatic Music: Veena, Violin, Nadaswaram, Gottuvadyam
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International Current Events — General Awareness · 12 cards
G20 (Group of Twenty)
Forum of 19 countries plus EU and African Union; India hosted the 2023 summit in New Delhi where African Union became a permanent member. Presidency rotates annually.
BRICS
Originally Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa. Expanded in 2024 to include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, UAE, and Saudi Arabia (though Saudi participation pending). Focus on de-dollarization and New Development Bank.
SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation)
Ten members (2024) including India and Pakistan (both joined 2017). Focus areas: security, counter-terrorism, economic cooperation. Iran became the 9th member in 2023 and Belarus the 10th in 2024.
QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue)
Informal strategic forum of India, USA, Japan, Australia. Not a military alliance but focuses on Free and Open Indo-Pacific. Annual summits since 2021.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)
Ten Southeast Asian nations; India is a Dialogue Partner since 1996 and Summit-level partner since 2002. India-ASEAN summits held annually.
COP (Conference of Parties)
Annual UN climate summit. COP28 held in Dubai (UAE) in 2023; COP29 in Baku (Azerbaijan) in 2024. Focus on climate finance, loss and damage fund.
UN Security Council
Five permanent members (P5): USA, UK, France, Russia, China with veto power. Ten non-permanent members elected for 2-year terms. India seeking permanent membership.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)
32 members after Finland (2023) and Sweden (2024) joined. Military alliance with Article 5 collective defence clause.
United Nations
Headquarters: New York · Key Points for Exam: 193 members; India founding member
G20
Headquarters: Rotates · Key Points for Exam: India hosted 2023; theme "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam"
SCO
Headquarters: Beijing · Key Points for Exam: Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent
ASEAN
Headquarters: Jakarta · Key Points for Exam: Founded 1967; "ASEAN Way" of consensus
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Budget and Taxation — General Awareness · 12 cards
Union Budget
is the annual financial statement of the Government of India, presented under Article 112 of the Constitution. It contains estimates of revenue and expenditure for the upcoming financial year (April 1 to March 31).
Revenue Budget
includes revenue receipts (tax and non-tax revenue) and revenue expenditure (salaries, subsidies, interest payments)—essentially day-to-day income and spending.
Capital Budget
covers capital receipts (loans, disinvestment) and capital expenditure (infrastructure, asset creation)—money that affects the government's asset-liability position.
Fiscal Deficit
= Total Expenditure − Total Receipts (excluding borrowings). It shows how much the government must borrow to meet its spending. Higher fiscal deficit means higher borrowing.
Revenue Deficit
= Revenue Expenditure − Revenue Receipts. A revenue deficit means the government is using borrowed money for day-to-day expenses, which is considered unhealthy.
Primary Deficit
= Fiscal Deficit − Interest Payments. It shows the borrowing requirement excluding the burden of past debts.
GST (Goods and Services Tax)
is a destination-based, multi-stage, comprehensive indirect tax that replaced multiple central and state taxes from July 1, 2017.
Direct vs Indirect Tax
Direct taxes (Income Tax, Corporate Tax) are paid directly by the taxpayer and cannot be transferred. Indirect taxes (GST, Customs) are levied on goods/services and can be passed on to consumers.
Budget presentation date
February 1 (since 2017; earlier it was the last working day of February)
Constitutional provision
Article 112 — Annual Financial Statement
First Union Budget
November 26, 1947, by RK Shanmukham Chetty
First woman to present Budget
Indira Gandhi (1970-71 Budget, as PM holding Finance); Nirmala Sitharaman (2019) is the first full-time woman Finance Minister
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World Geography — General Awareness · 12 cards
Seven Continents by Size
Asia > Africa > North America > South America > Antarctica > Europe > Australia. Remember "AANSAEA" — Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Australia (size order).
Five Oceans
Pacific (largest and deepest), Atlantic (S-shaped, busiest for trade), Indian (warmest), Southern (surrounds Antarctica), Arctic (smallest, coldest).
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Wegener proposed that continents were once joined as Pangaea and drifted apart. Evidence includes matching coastlines of South America and Africa.
Ring of Fire
Horseshoe-shaped zone around the Pacific Ocean with 75% of world's active volcanoes and 90% of earthquakes. Includes Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, Chile.
Major Mountain Systems
Himalayas (youngest, highest), Andes (longest continental), Rockies (North America), Alps (Europe), Ural (Europe-Asia boundary).
Great Rift Valley
Continuous geographic trench running from Lebanon through East Africa to Mozambique. Contains many lakes including Tanganyika and Malawi.
Ocean Currents
Warm currents flow from equator to poles (Gulf Stream), cold currents flow from poles to equator (Labrador Current). They affect climate of adjacent landmasses.
Tectonic Plates
Earth's lithosphere divided into major plates (Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, South American) whose movements cause earthquakes and volcanism.
Asia
Largest continent (30% of land area), highest population, contains Himalayas and Dead Sea (lowest point on land at -430 m)
Africa
Second largest, hottest continent, Sahara is world's largest hot desert, Nile is longest river (6,650 km)
North America
Third largest, contains Great Lakes (largest freshwater system), Grand Canyon, Mississippi-Missouri river system
South America
Contains Amazon (largest river by volume), Andes (longest mountain range at 7,000 km), Amazon rainforest (largest tropical rainforest)
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Medieval India — General Awareness · 12 cards
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
comprised five successive dynasties: Slave (Mamluk), Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi—each with distinct administrative and military policies.
Iqta System
was the Sultanate's land-revenue mechanism where military commanders (iqtadars) collected revenue in lieu of salary, ensuring decentralised control.
Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
was founded by Babur after the First Battle of Panipat; it reached its zenith under Akbar and Shah Jahan before declining after Aurangzeb.
Mansabdari System
was the Mughal administrative hierarchy where officials held numerical ranks (zat and sawar) determining their salary and cavalry obligations.
Din-i-Ilahi
was Akbar's syncretic faith (1582) blending elements of Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism and Christianity—it did not survive him.
Bhakti Movement
emphasised personal devotion to God, rejection of rituals and caste distinctions; it spread across India from the 7th century onwards, peaking in the 15th–17th centuries.
Sufi Movement
introduced Islamic mysticism stressing love, tolerance and the guru-disciple (pir-murid) relationship; Sufi silsilas (orders) like Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi flourished in India.
Battles of Panipat
(1526, 1556, 1761) were fought on Haryana's soil and repeatedly altered India's political trajectory—an essential topic for HSSC CET.
Delhi Sultanate founded
1206 CE by Qutbuddin Aibak (Slave dynasty)
First Sultan to assume title "Sultan"
Iltutmish (1211–1236)
Only female Sultan
Razia Sultana (1236–1240)
Alauddin Khilji's market reforms
Price control, rationing and espionage in Delhi markets
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Indian Polity and Constitution — General Awareness · 12 cards
Constitution as Supreme Law
India has a written, rigid yet flexible Constitution adopted on 26 November 1949 and in force from 26 January 1950. It is the longest written constitution in the world.
Federal Structure with Unitary Bias
India follows a quasi-federal system — federal in normal times (division of powers between Centre and States) but unitary during emergencies (Centre becomes dominant).
Separation of Powers
Legislature makes laws, Executive implements them, Judiciary interprets them. No organ can encroach on another's domain.
Parliamentary System
India follows the Westminster model — the Executive is drawn from and accountable to the Legislature. The Prime Minister, not the President, holds real executive power.
Fundamental Rights vs DPSPs
Fundamental Rights (Part III) are justiciable and enforceable by courts. Directive Principles (Part IV) are non-justiciable guidelines for governance.
Independent Judiciary
The Supreme Court and High Courts have the power of judicial review — they can strike down laws violating the Constitution.
Single Citizenship
Unlike the USA, India has single citizenship. A person born in Punjab is simply an Indian citizen, not a "Punjab citizen."
Universal Adult Franchise
Every citizen above 18 years (61st Amendment, 1989) has the right to vote regardless of caste, religion, gender, or economic status.
Preamble
Declares India as Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic. "Socialist" and "Secular" added by 42nd Amendment (1976).
Parts of Constitution
22 Parts, 8 Schedules, 395 Articles (original; 12 Schedules now), currently 470+ Articles.
Sources
Government of India Act 1935 (federal structure, emergency provisions), British Constitution (parliamentary system), US Constitution (fundamental rights, judicial review), Irish Constitution (DPSPs).
Article 1
India shall be a Union of States.
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Festivals and Heritage Sites — General Awareness · 12 cards
UNESCO World Heritage Site criteria
Sites must have Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) under cultural criteria (i-vi) or natural criteria (vii-x). Cultural sites relate to human history and architecture; natural sites relate to geology, ecology, or biodiversity.
Festival classification
Indian festivals divide into religious (Diwali, Eid, Christmas), harvest (Pongal, Baisakhi, Onam), seasonal (Holi, Makar Sankranti), and national (Republic Day, Independence Day).
Harvest festivals follow agricultural cycles
Pongal (Tamil Nadu, January), Lohri (Punjab/Haryana, January), Baisakhi (Punjab, April), Onam (Kerala, August-September), Bihu (Assam, April).
Religious festivals often have lunar calendar dates
Diwali (Kartik Amavasya), Holi (Phalgun Purnima), Eid (Islamic lunar calendar), making their Gregorian dates variable.
Heritage sites in Haryana
Haryana does not have a UNESCO World Heritage Site independently, but the Saraswati Heritage sites and Kurukshetra hold national importance.
Serial nominations
Some sites are inscribed as groups—Hill Forts of Rajasthan (6 forts), Western Ghats (39 sites across 4 states), Victorian and Art Deco Ensemble of Mumbai.
Intangible Cultural Heritage
UNESCO also recognizes intangible heritage—Kumbh Mela, Yoga, Durga Puja, and Ramlila are on India's list.
Diwali
Region/Religion: Pan-India (Hindu) · Month/Occasion: October-November (Kartik)
Holi
Region/Religion: Pan-India (Hindu) · Month/Occasion: March (Phalgun Purnima)
Eid-ul-Fitr
Region/Religion: Muslims · Month/Occasion: End of Ramadan
Christmas
Region/Religion: Christians · Month/Occasion: 25 December
Baisakhi
Region/Religion: Punjab, Haryana · Month/Occasion: 13-14 April (Sikh New Year)
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Sports — General Awareness · 12 cards
Olympic Games
Held every four years; Summer and Winter editions. India's best Summer Olympics performance came at Tokyo 2020 (7 medals). Paris 2024 is the most recent edition.
Commonwealth Games
Held every four years among Commonwealth nations. Birmingham 2022 was the last edition; India finished fourth in the medal tally.
Asian Games
Asia's largest multi-sport event, held every four years. Hangzhou 2022 saw India win a record 107 medals (28 gold).
FIFA World Cup
Football's premier tournament, held every four years. Argentina won the 2022 Qatar World Cup, defeating France in the final.
ICC Cricket Events
World Cup (ODI), T20 World Cup, and World Test Championship. India won the T20 World Cup 2024 under Rohit Sharma.
Khelo India Programme
Government initiative promoting grassroots sports. Includes Khelo India Youth Games and Khelo India University Games.
Major Sports Awards in India
Arjuna Award, Khel Ratna (renamed Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna), Dronacharya Award, and Dhyan Chand Award.
Pro Leagues in India
Pro Kabaddi League (PKL), Indian Premier League (IPL), Indian Super League (ISL), Pro Wrestling League, Hockey India League.
Paris Olympics 2024
India won 6 medals; Manu Bhaker (shooting) became first Indian woman to win 2 medals in single Olympics
Tokyo Olympics 2020
Neeraj Chopra won gold in javelin; India's best haul of 7 medals
Hangzhou Asian Games 2022
India won 107 medals (28 gold, 38 silver, 41 bronze)—highest ever
Birmingham CWG 2022
India won 61 medals; Mirabai Chanu won gold in weightlifting
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Banking — General Awareness · 12 cards
Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
is India's central bank, established on 1 April 1935 under the RBI Act, 1934. Headquartered in Mumbai, it was nationalized in 1949.
RBI as the Banker's Bank
means all scheduled commercial banks must maintain accounts with RBI and follow its directives on cash reserves, lending norms, and interest rates.
Currency Issuer
RBI has the sole authority to issue currency notes in India (except one-rupee notes, issued by Ministry of Finance). This is called the monopoly of note issue.
Monetary Policy
refers to RBI's actions to regulate money supply and credit in the economy to achieve price stability, economic growth, and financial stability.
Scheduled Commercial Banks
are banks listed in the Second Schedule of the RBI Act, 1934, and include public sector banks, private banks, foreign banks, and regional rural banks.
Repo Rate
is the rate at which RBI lends short-term money to commercial banks. When repo rate increases, borrowing becomes costlier, reducing money supply.
Reverse Repo Rate
is the rate at which RBI borrows money from commercial banks. Higher reverse repo encourages banks to park funds with RBI rather than lend.
CRR (Cash Reserve Ratio)
is the percentage of deposits that banks must keep with RBI as cash. It directly controls liquidity—higher CRR means less money available for lending.
SLR (Statutory Liquidity Ratio)
is the percentage of deposits banks must maintain as liquid assets (cash, gold, government securities). It ensures bank solvency.
RBI Established
1 April 1935
RBI Nationalized
1949
RBI Headquarters
Mumbai
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Geography — General Awareness · 12 cards
Physiographic Divisions of India
India has six major divisions — Northern Mountains (Himalayas), Northern Plains (Indo-Gangetic), Peninsular Plateau (Deccan), Coastal Plains (Eastern and Western), Thar Desert, and Islands (Andaman-Nicobar, Lakshadweep).
Monsoon Mechanism
India's climate is dominated by the Southwest Monsoon (June-September) bringing 75% of annual rainfall, caused by differential heating of land and sea and the shift of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone).
River Systems
Indian rivers are classified as Himalayan (perennial, snow-fed like Ganga, Indus) and Peninsular (rain-fed, seasonal like Godavari, Krishna). Most Peninsular rivers flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
Soil Types
India has eight major soil types — Alluvial (most fertile, northern plains), Black/Regur (cotton-growing, Deccan), Red (iron-rich, south India), Laterite (leached, high rainfall areas), and others.
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
Earth's lithosphere is divided into major plates whose movement causes earthquakes, volcanic activity, and mountain formation. India lies on the Indo-Australian Plate.
Climate Zones
Based on Koppen's classification, India has tropical, dry, subtropical humid, mountain, and arid climate zones. World climate ranges from equatorial to polar.
Biodiversity Hotspots
India has four hotspots — Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland. A hotspot must have at least 1,500 endemic plant species and have lost 70% of original habitat.
Longest River (India)
Ganga (2,525 km)
Longest River (World)
Nile (6,650 km)
Highest Peak (India)
Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) — on the Sikkim–Nepal border
Highest Peak (World)
Mount Everest (8,849 m)
Largest Lake (India)
Chilika Lake (Odisha) — brackish water
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Environment — General Awareness · 12 cards
Ecosystem
A community of living organisms interacting with their physical environment. Components include biotic (plants, animals, microbes) and abiotic (sunlight, water, soil) factors.
Biodiversity
The variety of life at three levels: genetic diversity (within species), species diversity (between species) and ecosystem diversity (variety of habitats).
Biodiversity Hotspots
Regions with exceptional endemic species facing severe habitat loss. India has 4 of the world's 36 hotspots: Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma and Sundaland (Nicobar Islands).
Greenhouse Effect
Natural warming of Earth's surface due to greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, water vapour) trapping heat. Human activities have intensified this, causing global warming.
Ozone Layer
Stratospheric ozone (O₃) absorbs harmful UV-B radiation. CFCs and halons cause ozone depletion, leading to the "ozone hole" over Antarctica.
Carbon Footprint
Total greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual, event or product, expressed in CO₂ equivalent.
Ecological Succession
Gradual process of ecosystem change where one community replaces another until a stable climax community is established.
Food Chain vs Food Web
Food chain is a single linear pathway of energy transfer. Food web is an interconnected network of multiple food chains in an ecosystem.
Major GHGs
CO₂ (main human-emitted GHG), CH₄ (much more potent than CO₂ short-term), N₂O, CFCs, water vapour
Montreal Protocol (1987)
Phased out ozone-depleting substances (CFCs, halons). Most successful environmental treaty
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
First binding emission targets for developed countries. India had no binding targets
Paris Agreement (2015)
Limit warming to 1.5–2°C above pre-industrial levels. India's NDC: 45% emission intensity reduction by 2030
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Modern India — General Awareness · 12 cards
Battle of Plassey (1757)
Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah with Mir Jafar's betrayal; marked the start of British political control in Bengal.
Doctrine of Lapse
Policy by Lord Dalhousie (1848–56) to annex states without a natural heir; annexed Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and others—directly sparked 1857 grievances.
Permanent Settlement (1793)
Lord Cornwallis fixed land revenue in Bengal; created the Zamindar class and burdened peasants with rigid demands.
Drain of Wealth
Dadabhai Naoroji's theory that British rule systematically transferred Indian wealth to Britain through taxes, trade imbalances, and Home Charges.
1857 Revolt
First large-scale armed uprising; immediate cause was greased cartridges; leaders included Mangal Pandey, Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope, Bahadur Shah Zafar.
Indian National Congress (1885)
Founded by A.O. Hume in Bombay; first president W.C. Bonnerjee; initially moderate in approach—petitions, prayers, and protests.
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Lord Curzon divided Bengal on communal lines; triggered Swadeshi Movement and anti-partition agitation; annulled in 1911.
Gandhian Mass Movements
Non-Cooperation (1920–22), Civil Disobedience (1930–34), Quit India (1942)—based on non-violence (ahimsa) and civil disobedience (satyagraha).
Battle of Buxar (1764)
British defeated combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, and Shah Alam II; established British supremacy in North India
Regulating Act
1773 — First Parliamentary act to regulate East India Company; created Governor-General of Bengal (Warren Hastings first holder)
Charter Act 1833
Made Governor-General of Bengal the Governor-General of India; ended Company's commercial activities
Queen's Proclamation
1858 — After 1857 Revolt; Crown took direct control; ended Company rule
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Union Government — General Awareness · 12 cards
Parliamentary System
India borrowed this from Britain — the executive is responsible to the legislature, and the President acts on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 74).
President as Nominal Head
The President is the constitutional head of state but exercises powers only on ministerial advice, except in rare discretionary situations.
Collective Responsibility
The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha (Article 75). If the government loses majority, the entire ministry resigns.
Lok Sabha Supremacy in Money Matters
Money Bills can only be introduced in Lok Sabha, and Rajya Sabha can only delay them for 14 days.
Bicameral Legislature
Parliament has two Houses — Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States) — ensuring federal representation and deliberative lawmaking.
No-Confidence Motion
The government must resign if it loses a no-confidence motion in Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha cannot pass such a motion.
Ordinance Power
The President can promulgate ordinances when Parliament is not in session (Article 123), having the same force as an Act of Parliament.
President
Elected indirectly by Electoral College (elected MPs + elected MLAs); Term: 5 years; Minimum age: 35 years; Impeachment under Article 61
Vice-President
Elected by MPs of both Houses; Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha; Term: 5 years; Minimum age: 35 years
Prime Minister
Appointed by President; Must command Lok Sabha majority; No fixed tenure; Leader of the House in Lok Sabha
Council of Ministers
Three ranks — Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, Deputy Ministers; Maximum size: 15% of Lok Sabha strength (91st Amendment)
Lok Sabha
Maximum 550 members (530 states + 20 UTs; the 2 nominated Anglo-Indian seats, which made it 552, ended in 2020); Term: 5 years; Quorum: 1/10th of total membership
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Awards and Honours — General Awareness · 12 cards
Bharat Ratna
is India's highest civilian award, established in 1954. It has no monetary prize and is conferred by the President. Maximum 3 recipients per year under the official scheme, though this has been exceeded (4 in 1999, 5 in 2024).
Padma Awards
follow a three-tier hierarchy: Padma Vibhushan (exceptional service), Padma Bhushan (distinguished service), Padma Shri (distinguished contribution). Announced on Republic Day eve.
Nobel Prize
covers six fields: Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature, Peace, and Economic Sciences. Awarded in Stockholm (Sweden) except Peace Prize in Oslo (Norway). Prize money comes from Alfred Nobel's estate (Economics: funded by Sweden's central bank, Sveriges Riksbank, since 1968).
Ramon Magsaysay Award
is often called "Asia's Nobel Prize," given for public service in Asia. Named after a Philippine president.
National Sports Awards
include Khel Ratna (renamed Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna), Arjuna Award, Dronacharya Award (coaches), and Dhyan Chand Award (lifetime achievement).
Gallantry Awards
in descending order: Param Vir Chakra, Maha Vir Chakra, Vir Chakra (wartime); Ashoka Chakra, Kirti Chakra, Shaurya Chakra (peacetime).
Sahitya Akademi Award
recognizes literary excellence in 24 Indian languages. Jnanpith Award is India's highest literary honour.
International awards
like Booker Prize (literature), Grammy (music), Oscar/Academy Award (films), and Pulitzer Prize (journalism/literature) are also worth knowing.
Khel Ratna
Field: Sports · Established: 1991-92 · Conferring Body: President of India · Key Fact: First: Viswanathan Anand; renamed after Major Dhyan Chand in 2021
Arjuna Award
Field: Sports · Established: 1961 · Conferring Body: Ministry of Sports · Key Fact: For consistent outstanding performance for 4 years
Dronacharya Award
Field: Coaching · Established: 1985 · Conferring Body: Ministry of Sports · Key Fact: For outstanding coaches
Jnanpith Award
Field: Literature · Established: 1961 · Conferring Body: Bharatiya Jnanpith · Key Fact: First: G. Sankara Kurup (1965)
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Indian National Movement — General Awareness · 12 cards
Revolt of 1857
was the first large-scale armed uprising against the British, triggered by the greased cartridge issue but rooted in political, economic, and social grievances. It failed due to lack of coordination and modern weapons but sowed seeds of nationalism.
Indian National Congress (INC)
was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume. The early phase (1885–1905) was dominated by Moderates who believed in constitutional methods—petitions, prayers, and persuasion.
Extremist Phase (1905–1919)
saw leaders like Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal) advocating Swadeshi, boycott, and national education. Tilak's slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it."
Gandhian Era (1919–1947)
transformed the movement into a mass struggle. Gandhi introduced Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) as the primary weapon, mobilizing peasants, women, and the common people.
Revolutionary Movements
ran parallel to Congress activities. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and others believed in armed struggle. Key events: Kakori Conspiracy (1925), Lahore Conspiracy Case (1929).
Communal Politics and Partition
emerged from the Muslim League's demand for separate electorates (1906) and eventually Pakistan (Lahore Resolution, 1940). Partition in 1947 came with massive communal violence and displacement.
Role of Subhas Chandra Bose
and the INA (Indian National Army) added a military dimension to the freedom struggle during World War II.
1857
Event: Revolt of 1857 · Key Detail: Started at Meerut on 10 May; Bahadur Shah Zafar declared leader
1885
Event: INC Founded · Key Detail: Bombay session; 72 delegates; W.C. Bonnerjee first president
1905
Event: Partition of Bengal · Key Detail: Lord Curzon; led to Swadeshi Movement
1906
Event: Muslim League Founded · Key Detail: Dhaka; Aga Khan III as first president
1915
Event: Gandhi returns to India · Key Detail: From South Africa; established Sabarmati Ashram (1917)
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State Government — General Awareness · 12 cards
Governor is the constitutional head
of the state, appointed by the President (not elected), and holds office "during the pleasure of the President" — typically a 5-year term but can be removed anytime.
Chief Minister is the real executive
leader of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly, appointed by the Governor, and heads the Council of Ministers which is collectively responsible to the State Legislature.
State Legislature can be unicameral or bicameral
only 6 states (Bihar, UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana) have bicameral legislatures with both Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad.
Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly)
members are directly elected by people; strength ranges from 60 to 500 members; normal term is 5 years but can be dissolved earlier.
Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council)
is a permanent body — one-third members retire every 2 years; members are indirectly elected or nominated; maximum strength is one-third of Vidhan Sabha.
High Court is the apex court in a state
established under Article 214; exercises original, appellate, and supervisory jurisdiction; can issue writs under Article 226.
Governor's discretionary powers
include recommending President's Rule (Article 356), reserving bills for President's consideration, and appointing CM when no party has clear majority.
Collective responsibility
means the Council of Ministers swim and sink together — if a no-confidence motion passes, the entire ministry resigns, not just the CM.
Governor
Key Article: Article 153 · Appointment/Election: Appointed by President · Term: 5 years (pleasure of President)
Chief Minister
Key Article: Article 164 · Appointment/Election: Appointed by Governor · Term: No fixed term (depends on majority)
Council of Ministers
Key Article: Article 163 · Appointment/Election: Appointed by Governor on CM's advice · Term: Same as CM
Vidhan Sabha
Key Article: Article 170 · Appointment/Election: Directly elected · Term: 5 years
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Art and Culture — General Awareness · 12 cards
Eight Classical Dances
Recognized by Sangeet Natak Akademi — Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Manipuri, Mohiniyattam, Sattriya. Each has a distinct state origin and style.
Two Classical Music Systems
Hindustani (North India, ragas like Bhairav, Yaman) and Carnatic (South India, kriti compositions). Both share raga-tala framework but differ in instruments and ornaments.
Folk vs Classical
Folk arts are region-specific, orally transmitted and community-based (Ghoomar, Bihu, Lavani). Classical arts follow codified treatises like Natyashastra.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India
Currently 42 sites (34 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed). Common exam picks: Taj Mahal, Ajanta-Ellora, Khajuraho, Hampi, Konark Sun Temple.
Painting Schools
Miniature traditions — Mughal, Rajput (Rajasthani), Pahari, Deccan. Modern artists — Raja Ravi Varma, Amrita Sher-Gil, M F Husain.
Architectural Styles
Nagara (North — curvilinear shikhara), Dravida (South — pyramidal vimana), Vesara (Deccan — hybrid). Indo-Islamic styles include Mughal, Sultanate and Deccan architecture.
Religious and Harvest Festivals
Diwali, Holi, Eid, Christmas are pan-Indian; Pongal (Tamil Nadu), Baisakhi (Punjab/Haryana), Onam (Kerala), Bihu (Assam) are region-specific.
Bharatanatyam
State: Tamil Nadu · Key Feature / Instrument: Nritta-Nritya-Natya; Aramandi posture
Kathak
State: Uttar Pradesh · Key Feature / Instrument: Ghungroo footwork; Lucknow & Jaipur gharanas
Kathakali
State: Kerala · Key Feature / Instrument: Elaborate face makeup; stories from Ramayana/Mahabharata
Kuchipudi
State: Andhra Pradesh · Key Feature / Instrument: Dance-drama; brass plate dance
Odissi
State: Odisha · Key Feature / Instrument: Tribhangi posture; temple sculptures of Konark
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Books and Authors — General Awareness · 12 cards
Autobiography vs Biography
An autobiography is written by the person about their own life (e.g., Wings of Fire by APJ Abdul Kalam). A biography is written by someone else about another person (e.g., Gandhi: The Years That Changed the World by Ramachandra Guha).
Man Booker Prize
One of the most prestigious literary awards. Indian-origin winners include Arundhati Roy (The God of Small Things, 1997), Kiran Desai (The Inheritance of Loss, 2006), and Arvind Adiga (The White Tiger, 2008).
Sahitya Akademi Award
India's national academy of letters gives annual awards in 24 languages. Know recent Hindi and English winners.
Jnanpith Award
India's highest literary honour. Know recent recipients and their landmark works.
Books by Prime Ministers
Jawaharlal Nehru (Discovery of India), Atal Bihari Vajpayee (poetry collections), Narendra Modi (Exam Warriors).
Freedom Struggle Literature
Books written during or about the independence movement.
Recent Releases
Books launched by sitting Presidents, Prime Ministers, or about major national events are worth tracking.
Discovery of India
Jawaharlal Nehru
Glimpses of World History
Jawaharlal Nehru
My Experiments with Truth
Mahatma Gandhi
Hind Swaraj
Mahatma Gandhi
India Wins Freedom
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
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Current Affairs — General Awareness · 12 cards
Government Schemes
Focus on flagship schemes like PM Gati Shakti, Ayushman Bharat, PM-KISAN, Jal Jeevan Mission, and new launches. Know the ministry responsible, launch date, and key objectives.
International Summits
G20, G7, BRICS, SCO, ASEAN, COP (Climate), and bilateral summits. Note the host country, year, theme, and major outcomes or declarations.
Appointments
Track new governors, chief justices, CAG, Election Commissioners, RBI Governor, service chiefs, and heads of international bodies (UN, WHO, IMF, World Bank).
Sports Events
Olympics, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games, Cricket World Cups, and Indian achievements. Know medal counts, venues, and record-breaking performances.
Awards and Honours
Bharat Ratna, Padma Awards, Nobel Prize, Booker Prize, Ramon Magsaysay, national sports awards (Khel Ratna, Arjuna, Dronacharya).
Defence and Space
ISRO missions (Chandrayaan, Aditya L1, Gaganyaan updates), DRDO developments, new defence acquisitions, and military exercises.
Economic Developments
GDP growth rates, Union Budget highlights, RBI policy changes, GST Council decisions, and major economic indicators.
Haryana-Specific
State budget, new schemes, industrial developments, sports achievements by Haryanvi players, and administrative changes.
G20 Summit 2023
New Delhi, September 2023; Theme: "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam"; African Union made permanent member
Chandrayaan-3
Soft landing near Moon's south pole, 23 August 2023; Vikram lander and Pragyan rover
Aditya-L1
India's first solar mission, launched September 2023; reached L1 point January 2024
Ram Mandir Pran Pratishtha
Ayodhya, 22 January 2024
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Analogy — Reasoning Ability · 12 cards
The Core Structure
Every analogy follows the pattern A : B :: C : D, read as "A is to B as C is to D." Your job is to find the relationship between A and B, then identify which option creates the same relationship with C.
Direction Matters
The relationship flows in a specific direction. "Doctor : Hospital" means "doctor works in hospital" — reversing to "Hospital : Doctor" changes the meaning entirely.
First Pair is the Key
Always analyze the given pair completely before looking at options. Identify the precise relationship, not a vague connection.
Multiple Relationships Possible
Two words can have several relationships. "Pen : Write" could be tool-action, but also "Pen : Ink" is container-content. The question stem defines which relationship applies.
Number Analogies Follow Mathematical Rules
Look for operations like squares, cubes, addition, multiplication, or digit manipulation applied consistently across pairs.
Figure Analogies Test Transformation
Elements may rotate, flip, increase/decrease, change shading, or move position. Identify what changes and what stays constant.
Eliminate by Relationship Type
If the given pair shows a part-whole relationship, options showing cause-effect relationships are immediately wrong.
Synonym
Happy : Joyful
Antonym
Hot : Cold
Part : Whole
Wheel : Car
Worker : Workplace
Teacher : School
Tool : Action
Knife : Cut
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Series Completion — Reasoning Ability · 12 cards
Arithmetic Series
Each term differs from the previous by a constant value (common difference). Example: 3, 7, 11, 15, 19 → difference is +4.
Geometric Series
Each term is multiplied by a constant value (common ratio). Example: 2, 6, 18, 54 → ratio is ×3.
Square/Cube Series
Terms are perfect squares (1, 4, 9, 16, 25) or perfect cubes (1, 8, 27, 64, 125), sometimes with additions or subtractions.
Difference of Differences
When first-level differences vary, check second-level differences. If those are constant, it's a quadratic pattern.
Letter Series by Position
A=1, B=2, ... Z=26. Patterns involve adding/subtracting positions. Example: B, E, H, K → positions 2, 5, 8, 11 (difference +3).
Alternating Series
Two or more interwoven series. Example: 2, 5, 4, 7, 6, 9 → Series A: 2, 4, 6 and Series B: 5, 7, 9.
Mixed/Alphanumeric Series
Combines letters and numbers. Decode each component separately.
Figure Series
Shapes rotate, flip, increase/decrease in number, or follow positional rules. Observe changes element by element.
Constant difference
How to Detect: Subtract consecutive terms—same result · Example: 5, 9, 13, 17 → +4
Constant ratio
How to Detect: Divide consecutive terms—same result · Example: 3, 12, 48, 192 → ×4
Squares ± k
How to Detect: Terms near perfect squares · Example: 2, 5, 10, 17, 26 → n² + 1
Cubes ± k
How to Detect: Terms near perfect cubes · Example: 2, 9, 28, 65 → n³ + 1
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Coding-Decoding — Reasoning Ability · 11 cards
Coding
means converting a word/number into a different form using a specific rule. Decoding means reversing the process to find the original.
Letter-Letter Coding
Each letter is replaced by another letter based on a shifting rule (e.g., each letter moves +2 positions: A→C, B→D).
Letter-Number Coding
Letters are converted to their positional values (A=1, B=2, ... Z=26) or vice versa, sometimes with arithmetic operations.
Number-Number Coding
Numbers are transformed using operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, digit reversal, or place-value swapping.
Mixed/Symbol Coding
Words or letters are assigned arbitrary symbols (★, @, #) and you must map the pattern from given examples.
Alphabet Position Table
Memorize A=1 through Z=26. For reverse counting, A=26, B=25, ... Z=1. This is non-negotiable for speed.
Cyclic Nature
The English alphabet is cyclic—after Z comes A. So if you shift +3 from Y, you get B (Y→Z→A→B).
Pattern Detection Order
Always check—(a) direct shift (+1, +2, -1), (b) reverse alphabet substitution, (c) positional value coding, (d) arbitrary assignment.
Forward
A: 1 · B: 2 · C: 3 · D: 4 · E: 5 · F: 6 · G: 7 · H: 8 · I: 9 · J: 10 · K: 11 · L: 12 · M: 13
Reverse
A: 26 · B: 25 · C: 24 · D: 23 · E: 22 · F: 21 · G: 20 · H: 19 · I: 18 · J: 17 · K: 16 · L: 15 · M: 14
Position
A: N · B: O · C: P · D: Q · E: R · F: S · G: T · H: U · I: V · J: W · K: X · L: Y · M: Z
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Direction Sense — Reasoning Ability · 10 cards
Eight cardinal and ordinal directions
North (N), South (S), East (E), West (W), and the four intermediate directions—North-East (NE), North-West (NW), South-East (SE), South-West (SW). The angle between any two adjacent directions is 45°.
Opposite directions
N↔S, E↔W, NE↔SW, NW↔SE. If you face North and turn 180°, you face South.
Right and Left turns from each direction
From North—right turn gives East, left turn gives West. From East—right turn gives South, left turn gives North. Memorise the clockwise sequence: N→E→S→W→N.
Sunrise and Sunset orientation
Sun rises in the East and sets in the West. If your shadow falls to your right in the morning, you are facing South.
Shadow rule for time
Morning shadow falls towards West (sun in East). Evening shadow falls towards East (sun in West). At noon, shadow is minimal/directly below.
Pythagoras theorem for shortest distance
When movements form a right-angled path, shortest distance = √(base² + height²). This applies when net horizontal and vertical displacements are perpendicular.
Net displacement method
Add all movements in the same direction, subtract opposite movements. Final position is determined by net North-South displacement and net East-West displacement.
Morning (6 AM)
Sun Position: East · Shadow Falls: West
Noon (12 PM)
Sun Position: Overhead · Shadow Falls: Minimal
Evening (6 PM)
Sun Position: West · Shadow Falls: East
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Syllogism — Reasoning Ability · 11 cards
Accept statements as absolutely true
Never question whether "All cats are dogs" makes real-world sense. If the statement says it, believe it for that problem.
"Some" means "at least one"
It could mean one, many, or even all. "Some X are Y" doesn't exclude the possibility that all X are Y.
"Some X are Y" implies "Some Y are X"
This is called converse. Particular affirmatives are convertible.
"No X is Y" implies "No Y is X"
Universal negatives are also fully convertible.
"All X are Y" does NOT mean "All Y are X"
Universal affirmatives convert only to particular — "All X are Y" gives "Some Y are X."
Use Venn diagrams for complex cases
Draw circles representing each category. Shade or mark regions to visualize what must be true versus what might be true.
"Either-or" conclusions
If neither individual conclusion follows alone, check if together they cover all possibilities — then "either (i) or (ii)" follows.
A (Universal Affirmative)
Standard Form: All X are Y · Converse: Some Y are X
E (Universal Negative)
Standard Form: No X is Y · Converse: No Y is X
I (Particular Affirmative)
Standard Form: Some X are Y · Converse: Some Y are X
O (Particular Negative)
Standard Form: Some X are not Y · Converse: No valid converse
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Puzzles — Reasoning Ability · 12 cards
Linear seating
People sit in a single row. Direction matters—"left of" and "right of" depend on whether you view from the front or from behind the row. Always fix one perspective and stick to it.
Circular seating
People sit around a table. "Immediate left" and "immediate right" are relative to the person. For circular arrangements, pick any fixed position to anchor the first definite clue.
Inward vs outward facing
In circular arrangements, facing centre (inward) reverses left-right compared to facing outward. Identify this clearly before placing anyone.
Scheduling puzzles
Assign n persons to n slots (days, time periods). Treat it like a one-to-one mapping table. Fill confirmed slots first, then use elimination.
Grouping puzzles
Divide n items/persons into k groups with given constraints (e.g., A and B must be together; C and D cannot be together). Often solved with table + elimination.
Definite clues vs conditional clues
Always start with definite clues ("X sits at the left end") before conditional ones ("If Y sits next to Z, then..."). This reduces trial-and-error.
Negative clues
"A does not sit adjacent to B" narrows possibilities. Mark such constraints and eliminate during final verification.
Multiple solutions trap
Some puzzles allow two or more valid arrangements. Questions may then ask "Which of the following is definitely true?" Answer only what holds in all valid arrangements.
Linear row (n seats)
Positions numbered 1 to n from one fixed end (usually left).
Circular (n seats)
Fix one person arbitrarily; place others relative to that anchor.
"Immediate neighbour"
Exactly one seat apart (no gap).
"Second to the left"
Two seats away in the left direction.
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Alphanumeric Series — Reasoning Ability · 12 cards
Component separation
Always split an alphanumeric sequence into its letter part, number part, and symbol part (if present). Analyze each independently before combining.
Letter position values
A=1, B=2, C=3... Z=26. Many patterns involve adding, subtracting, or multiplying these position values.
Common letter patterns
Forward jumps (+1, +2, +3...), backward jumps, alternating directions, vowel-only or consonant-only sequences, and reverse alphabetical order.
Common number patterns
Arithmetic progression (constant difference), geometric progression (constant ratio), squares, cubes, primes, Fibonacci-style additions, and alternating operations.
Symbol patterns
Symbols typically follow simple repetition cycles or positional rules (e.g., symbol appears every 3rd term, or alternates between two symbols).
Mixed operation patterns
Some series apply different rules to odd-positioned and even-positioned terms. Always check if alternate terms follow separate patterns.
Position-based linking
Advanced questions link letter and number values—for example, the number might equal the letter's position, or the sum of letter positions.
Letters A-Z correspond to positions 1-26
Convert letters to numbers for pattern detection
Vowels: A(1), E(5), I(9), O(15), U(21)
Vowel-only series follow +4, +4, +6, +6 gaps
After Z comes A (cyclic)
Z + 1 = A in cyclic letter series
Prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23...
Prime-based number components
Perfect squares: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64...
Square-based patterns
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Classification (Odd One Out) — Reasoning Ability · 7 cards
Common Property Principle
In every classification question, all items except one share a common property. Your job is to find that property and identify the outsider.
Multiple Valid Properties
A group may have several possible classification bases. Always choose the most specific or dominant property that excludes exactly one item.
Word-Based Classifications
Items grouped by category (fruits, metals, rivers), grammatical features (parts of speech, gender), origin (languages, countries), or functional use (tools, instruments).
Number-Based Classifications
Items grouped by mathematical properties—prime numbers, perfect squares, even/odd, divisibility rules, or number patterns (sum of digits, difference between digits).
Letter-Based Classifications
Items grouped by position in alphabet (vowels, consonants), pattern in positions (consecutive letters, gap patterns), or symmetry (letters with vertical/horizontal symmetry).
Figure-Based Classifications
Shapes grouped by number of sides, open vs closed figures, curved vs straight lines, rotation patterns, or shading patterns.
Hierarchy of Properties
When confused, prefer mathematical/structural properties over superficial ones. "All are prime except one" is stronger than "all have same number of digits except one."
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Ranking and Order — Reasoning Ability · 12 cards
Rank from Left vs Right
Position from left counts starting from the leftmost as 1; position from right counts starting from the rightmost as 1. These are complementary measures.
The Fundamental Formula
If a person is at position L from left and position R from right in a row of N people, then L + R = N + 1. This single relationship solves most problems.
Persons Between Two Positions
If two people are at positions P₁ and P₂ (where P₂ > P₁), the number of persons between them = P₂ − P₁ − 1.
Interchange of Positions
When two people swap seats, their individual ranks change but the total count remains same. Track each person's new position carefully.
Same Person, Two Ranks Given
When both left and right ranks of the same person are given, directly apply L + R = N + 1 to find total.
Overlapping vs Non-Overlapping
When two different people's positions are given, check if they could be the same person. If definitely different, their positions help establish boundaries.
Position After Shifting
If a person moves K places to the right, new position = old position + K. If moving left, subtract K.
Total persons in a row
N = L + R − 1
Position from right (given left position)
R = N − L + 1
Position from left (given right position)
L = N − R + 1
Persons between two positions P₁ and P₂
P₂ − P₁ − 1 (where P₂ > P₁)
Persons between from both ends (same row)
If L from left and R from right mark boundaries: N − L − R persons between them
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Statement and Arguments — Reasoning Ability · 8 cards
Statement
A proposal, suggestion, or course of action presented for consideration (e.g., "Should schools ban mobile phones?").
Argument
A reason given either in favour (FOR) or against (AGAINST) the statement. Each argument must be evaluated independently.
Strong Argument
An argument that is (1) directly related to the statement, (2) based on facts or universal truths, and (3) addresses the practical consequences or core issue.
Weak Argument
An argument that is (1) vague or ambiguous, (2) based on emotions, assumptions, or personal opinions, (3) uses extreme words like "always," "never," "all," "none," or (4) is irrelevant to the statement.
Relevance Test
Ask yourself—"Does this argument directly address what the statement is proposing?" If yes, proceed to check strength.
Practicality Test
A strong argument considers real-world implications and benefits/drawbacks that can be reasonably expected.
Extreme Statements are Weak
Arguments using absolutes ("Everyone knows," "No one can deny," "It will definitely") are almost always weak because they cannot be universally proven.
Emotional Appeals are Weak
Arguments appealing to fear, pity, tradition without logic ("Our ancestors did it," "It would hurt sentiments") are weak.
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Cause and Effect — Reasoning Ability · 7 cards
Cause
An event or action that directly produces or leads to another event. The cause always precedes the effect in time.
Effect
The outcome or result that occurs because of the cause. It cannot happen before its cause.
Independent Events
Two events that have no logical connection — neither causes the other, and they do not share a common cause.
Common Cause
When two events both result from a third, underlying event. Neither is the cause of the other; both are effects of something else.
Immediate vs Remote Cause
An immediate cause directly produces the effect. A remote cause is part of a chain but not the direct trigger.
Sequence ≠ Causation
Just because Event I happens before Event II does not mean I caused II. Look for a logical mechanism, not just timing.
Reversibility Test
If reversing the order makes no sense logically, the original order likely reflects a cause-effect relationship.
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Paper Folding and Cutting — Reasoning Ability · 7 cards
Fold line acts as a mirror
When paper is unfolded, any cut or punch reflects symmetrically across the fold line. This is the fundamental principle.
Number of holes doubles with each fold
One punch on a twice-folded paper creates 4 holes (2¹ × 2¹ = 4). On a thrice-folded paper, one punch creates 8 holes.
Distance from fold line is preserved
A hole punched 1 cm from the fold appears 1 cm on the other side too when unfolded.
Track the folding sequence
Unfold in exact reverse order of folding. The last fold opens first.
Corner folds create diagonal symmetry
When paper is folded diagonally, holes reflect along the diagonal axis.
Edge cuts vs centre cuts
Cuts on the folded edge appear in the interior when unfolded; cuts away from folds appear near edges.
Layer counting matters
If you punch through 4 layers, you get 4 holes. Count how many layers exist at the punch point.
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Cube and Dice — Reasoning Ability · 12 cards
Standard Dice Rule
On a standard dice, opposite faces always sum to 7. The pairs are (1,6), (2,5), and (3,4).
Non-Standard Dice
Any dice where opposite faces do not follow the sum-of-7 rule. Questions may ask you to identify whether a dice is standard or non-standard.
Cube Net (Unfolded Cube)
A 2D pattern of six connected squares that folds into a cube. There are exactly 11 distinct cube nets. Understanding nets helps identify opposite faces.
Opposite Face Identification
In any cube net, faces that are separated by exactly one square (with a gap square between them in a straight line) are opposite to each other.
Adjacent Faces
Faces that share an edge when the cube is folded. If two faces touch in the net (share a side), they are adjacent, not opposite.
Rotation Principle
When a cube is rotated, opposite faces remain opposite. Only adjacent faces change their relative positions during rotation.
Painted Cube Problems
A larger cube is painted on all faces, then cut into smaller identical cubes. You must count cubes with 0, 1, 2, or 3 painted faces.
Corner, Edge, Face, and Core Cubes
In a painted cube cut into n x n x n smaller cubes — corners have 3 painted faces, edges have 2, face-centers have 1, and internal cubes have 0.
3 faces painted
Position: Corner cubes · Count Formula: Always 8
2 faces painted
Position: Edge cubes (excluding corners) · Count Formula: 12 x (n - 2)
1 face painted
Position: Face-center cubes · Count Formula: 6 x (n - 2)²
0 faces painted
Position: Internal cubes · Count Formula: (n - 2)³
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Venn Diagrams — Reasoning Ability · 8 cards
Disjoint Sets
Two or more groups with no common members. Shown as separate, non-touching circles. Example: Dogs, Tables, Mountains — completely unrelated categories.
Overlapping Sets
Groups that share some but not all members. Shown as intersecting circles. Example: Students, Athletes, Musicians — a person can belong to one, two, or all three.
Subset Relationship
One group is entirely contained within another. Shown as a smaller circle inside a larger one. Example: Roses inside Flowers inside Plants — every rose is a flower, every flower is a plant.
Identical Sets
Two groups with exactly the same members. Represented by a single circle with both labels. Example: Unmarried Men and Bachelors.
Mixed Relationships
Real questions often combine relationship types. Example: Dogs, Animals, Cats — Dogs and Cats are both subsets of Animals, but Dogs and Cats are disjoint from each other.
The Universal Set
The outer rectangle in some diagrams represents "everything" — all possible items being considered.
Intersection (∩)
The region where circles overlap, representing members belonging to all overlapping groups.
Union (∪)
All regions covered by the circles combined, representing members belonging to at least one group.
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Number System — Quantitative Ability · 10 cards
Natural Numbers (N)
Counting numbers starting from 1. Example: 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Whole Numbers (W)
Natural numbers plus zero. Example: 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Integers (Z)
All whole numbers and their negatives. Example: ..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Rational Numbers
Numbers expressible as p/q where p, q are integers and q ≠ 0. Every terminating or repeating decimal is rational.
Place Value vs Face Value
In 5832, the face value of 8 is simply 8, but the place value of 8 is 800 (8 × 100).
Even and Odd Numbers
Even numbers are divisible by 2 (end in 0, 2, 4, 6, 8); odd numbers are not.
Prime Numbers
Numbers greater than 1 with exactly two factors (1 and itself). First ten primes: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29.
Composite Numbers
Numbers with more than two factors. Note: 1 is neither prime nor composite.
10
Last digit is 0
11
Difference of (sum of digits at odd places) and (sum of digits at even places) is 0 or divisible by 11
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Simplification — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
BODMAS Rule
The golden rule for order of operations—Brackets, Orders (powers/roots), Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction. Always work left to right within the same priority level.
Brackets Hierarchy
Solve innermost brackets first. Order: Vinculum (bar) → Parentheses ( ) → Curly braces { } → Square brackets [ ].
Fractions
A fraction a/b represents a parts out of b equal parts. To add/subtract fractions, make denominators equal (LCM). To multiply, multiply numerators and denominators directly. To divide, multiply by the reciprocal.
Decimals
Decimals are base-10 fractions. Align decimal points for addition/subtraction. Count total decimal places for multiplication. Move decimal point for division.
Mixed Numbers
Convert mixed numbers (like 3½) to improper fractions (7/2) before calculating. Convert back only at the end.
Square Roots
√a × √b = √(ab). √a / √b = √(a/b). To rationalize, multiply by conjugate.
Cube Roots
∛(a × b) = ∛a × ∛b. Useful cube roots to memorize: ∛8 = 2, ∛27 = 3, ∛64 = 4, ∛125 = 5, ∛216 = 6, ∛343 = 7, ∛512 = 8, ∛729 = 9, ∛1000 = 10.
Surds Simplification
√50 = √(25×2) = 5√2. Always extract perfect square factors.
BODMAS order
B → O → D → M → A → S (same level: left to right)
Fraction addition
a/b + c/d = (ad + bc) / bd
Fraction multiplication
a/b × c/d = ac / bd
Fraction division
a/b ÷ c/d = a/b × d/c
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LCM and HCF — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
HCF (Highest Common Factor)
The largest number that divides two or more numbers exactly. Also called GCD (Greatest Common Divisor). Example: HCF of 12 and 18 is 6.
LCM (Lowest Common Multiple)
The smallest number that is exactly divisible by two or more numbers. Example: LCM of 4 and 6 is 12.
Relationship between LCM and HCF
For any two numbers a and b, LCM × HCF = a × b. This formula is crucial for solving problems where one value is missing.
Co-prime numbers
Two numbers with HCF = 1. Example: 8 and 15 are co-prime. For co-primes, LCM = product of the numbers.
LCM is always ≥ the largest number
LCM of any set of numbers is at least as large as the biggest number in that set.
HCF is always ≤ the smallest number
HCF of any set of numbers cannot exceed the smallest number.
HCF of fractions
HCF of numerators ÷ LCM of denominators.
LCM of fractions
LCM of numerators ÷ HCF of denominators.
LCM × HCF = Product of two numbers
Only valid for exactly two numbers
HCF of fractions = HCF of numerators / LCM of denominators
Use when dealing with fractional values
LCM of fractions = LCM of numerators / HCF of denominators
Use when dealing with fractional values
HCF(a, b) = HCF(b, a mod b)
Euclidean algorithm — repeat until remainder is 0
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Percentage — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
Basic Definition
x% means x out of 100, written as x/100 or 0.01x in decimal form.
Conversion Rule
To convert a fraction to percentage, multiply by 100. To convert percentage to fraction, divide by 100.
Percentage of a Number
x% of N = (x × N)/100. This is the most frequently used calculation.
Percentage Change
When a quantity changes from old value to new value, percentage change = [(New − Old)/Old] × 100.
Successive Percentage Change
When two successive changes of a% and b% occur, the net effect = a + b + (ab/100)%.
Base Value Matters
"A is what percent of B" means (A/B) × 100, while "A is what percent more than B" means [(A−B)/B] × 100. The denominator (base) decides the answer.
Reverse Percentage
If after x% increase the value is V, then original = V × 100/(100+x).
x% of N = xN/100
Finding percentage of any number
Fraction to % = Fraction × 100
Converting 3/4 to 75%
% to Decimal = %/100
Converting 25% to 0.25
% Increase = [(New−Old)/Old] × 100
Price rose from ₹50 to ₹60 → 20% increase
% Decrease = [(Old−New)/Old] × 100
Price fell from ₹60 to ₹48 → 20% decrease
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Ratio and Proportion — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
Ratio
is a comparison of two quantities by division, written as a : b or a/b. Both quantities must be in the same unit. A ratio has no unit itself.
Proportion
means two ratios are equal: if a : b = c : d, then a, b, c, d are in proportion. Here, a and d are called extremes, while b and c are called means.
Product rule of proportion
In a proportion a : b :: c : d, the product of extremes equals the product of means, i.e., a × d = b × c.
Types of proportion
Direct proportion (both quantities increase/decrease together), Inverse proportion (one increases as the other decreases).
Third proportional
If a : b = b : c, then c is the third proportional to a and b. Formula: c = b²/a.
Fourth proportional
If a : b = c : d, then d is the fourth proportional. Formula: d = (b × c)/a.
Mean proportional
Between a and b is √(a × b). If a : x = x : b, then x is the mean proportional.
Partnership
When partners invest different amounts for different durations, profit share is proportional to (Capital × Time) for each partner.
Ratio of a to b
a : b = a/b (simplify to lowest terms)
Proportion test
a : b :: c : d ⟹ a × d = b × c
Third proportional to a, b
c = b²/a
Fourth proportional to a, b, c
d = (b × c)/a
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Average — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
Simple Average
= Sum of all observations ÷ Number of observations. All items carry equal importance.
Weighted Average
applies when different items have different weights or frequencies. Each value is multiplied by its weight before summing.
The Sum Principle
Average × Number of items = Total Sum. This relationship is the foundation of almost every average problem.
Effect of adding/removing an item
When a new value is added, the change in average depends on how far the new value is from the old average.
Average of consecutive numbers
For any arithmetic progression, the average equals the middle term (or average of two middle terms if count is even).
Combining two groups
When two groups merge, the combined average lies between the individual averages, closer to the group with more members.
Age-based problems
Average age of a group increases by 1 year after 1 year passes, assuming no additions or removals.
Sum from Average
Sum = Average × n
Average of first n natural numbers
(n + 1) ÷ 2
Average of first n even numbers
n + 1
Average of consecutive numbers from a to b
(a + b) ÷ 2
New average when one item is replaced
New Avg = Old Avg + (New value − Old value) ÷ n
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Profit, Loss and Discount — Quantitative Ability · 8 cards
Cost Price (CP)
is the price at which a trader buys goods. This is the base for calculating profit or loss percentage.
Selling Price (SP)
is the price at which a trader sells goods to a customer. Comparing SP with CP determines profit or loss.
Marked Price (MP)
is the price labelled on the product (also called List Price or Catalogue Price). Discounts are calculated on MP, not CP.
Profit occurs when SP > CP
; Loss occurs when SP < CP. The difference gives the absolute profit or loss.
Discount
is the reduction offered on Marked Price to arrive at the Selling Price. Discount = MP − SP.
Successive discounts
are applied one after another on the reduced price, not on the original MP.
The base matters
Profit/Loss percentage is always on CP. Discount percentage is always on MP.
Break-even
means SP = CP, i.e., no profit no loss.
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Time and Distance — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
Basic Relationship
Distance = Speed × Time. This is the foundation—rearrange it to find any unknown when two values are given.
Unit Conversion
To convert km/hr to m/s, multiply by 5/18. To convert m/s to km/hr, multiply by 18/5.
Relative Speed (Same Direction)
When two objects move in the same direction, relative speed = difference of their speeds. The faster object "gains" on the slower one.
Relative Speed (Opposite Direction)
When two objects move towards each other, relative speed = sum of their speeds. They close the gap faster.
Train Crossing a Stationary Object
When a train crosses a pole or a person, the distance covered equals the train's own length.
Train Crossing a Platform/Bridge
Distance covered = Length of train + Length of platform. The train must clear its entire body past the platform.
Boats and Streams
Downstream speed = Boat speed + Stream speed. Upstream speed = Boat speed – Stream speed. The current helps or hinders the boat.
Average Speed
For equal distances at different speeds, Average Speed = 2ab/(a+b), where a and b are the two speeds. This is NOT the arithmetic mean.
Basic formula
Distance = Speed × Time
km/hr to m/s
Speed in m/s = Speed in km/hr × (5/18)
m/s to km/hr
Speed in km/hr = Speed in m/s × (18/5)
Train crossing pole/person
Time = Length of train / Speed of train
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Mensuration — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
Perimeter
is the total length of the boundary of a 2D figure. Think of it as the length of fence needed to enclose a plot.
Area
measures the surface covered by a 2D figure. Think of it as the amount of paint needed to cover a floor.
Surface Area
of a 3D solid is the total area of all its outer faces. Curved Surface Area (CSA) excludes the flat ends (bases), while Total Surface Area (TSA) includes everything.
Volume
measures the space occupied by a 3D solid. Think of it as the amount of water a container can hold.
Unit consistency
is critical: if dimensions are in metres, area is in m² and volume is in m³. Convert all dimensions to the same unit before calculating.
Rectangle
Area: l × b · Perimeter: 2(l + b)
Square
Area: a² · Perimeter: 4a
Triangle
Area: ½ × base × height · Perimeter: Sum of all sides
Right Triangle
Area: ½ × base × perpendicular · Perimeter: a + b + hypotenuse
Equilateral Triangle
Area: (√3/4) × a² · Perimeter: 3a
Circle
Area: πr² · Perimeter: 2πr (circumference)
Semicircle
Area: ½πr² · Perimeter: πr + 2r
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Algebra — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
Algebraic Expression
A combination of constants, variables, and operations (e.g., 3x² + 5x − 7). Terms are separated by + or − signs.
Polynomial Degree
The highest power of the variable. In 4x³ + 2x − 1, the degree is 3.
Like Terms
Terms with identical variable parts (e.g., 3xy and −5xy). Only like terms can be added or subtracted directly.
Identity vs Equation
An identity holds true for all values of variables (e.g., (a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²). An equation is true only for specific values.
Linear Equation in One Variable
Form ax + b = 0. Solution: x = −b/a.
Linear Equations in Two Variables
Form a₁x + b₁y = c₁ and a₂x + b₂y = c₂. Solved using substitution, elimination, or cross-multiplication.
Factorization
Breaking an expression into product of simpler expressions. Reverse of expansion.
Condition for Unique Solution
Two linear equations have a unique solution when a₁/a₂ ≠ b₁/b₂.
(a + b)²
a² + 2ab + b²
(a − b)²
a² − 2ab + b²
(a + b)(a − b)
a² − b²
(a + b)³
a³ + 3a²b + 3ab² + b³ = a³ + b³ + 3ab(a + b)
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Data Interpretation — Quantitative Ability · 12 cards
Table Reading
Rows represent one variable (e.g., years), columns represent another (e.g., products or regions). Locate the intersection for your required value.
Bar Graph Interpretation
Height of each bar shows the value. Grouped bars compare multiple categories; stacked bars show composition of a total.
Pie Chart Logic
Each slice represents a percentage or proportion of the whole (360° = 100%). To find the actual value: (degree/360) × total or (percentage/100) × total.
Line Graph Trends
Points connected by lines show change over time. Slope indicates rate of change — steeper slope means faster change.
Percentage Change Formula
Change% = [(New Value − Old Value) / Old Value] × 100. Positive result means increase; negative means decrease.
Ratio from Data
To compare two quantities, express them as a fraction and simplify. Example: 250 and 200 gives ratio 5:4.
Approximation Skill
When options differ by 5–10%, round numbers to nearest tens or hundreds for faster calculation.
Data Sufficiency Awareness
Sometimes a question asks what "cannot be determined" — check if the required data actually exists in the given set.
Percentage of total
(Part / Total) × 100
Percentage change
[(New − Old) / Old] × 100
Actual value from pie chart
(Given% / 100) × Total value
Degree in pie chart
(Part / Total) × 360°
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Geometry — Quantitative Ability · 8 cards
Angle relationships
Complementary angles sum to 90°, supplementary angles sum to 180°. Vertically opposite angles are always equal.
Parallel lines with transversal
When a transversal cuts two parallel lines, alternate interior angles are equal, corresponding angles are equal, and co-interior (same-side interior) angles are supplementary.
Triangle angle sum
Interior angles of any triangle add up to 180°. Exterior angle equals the sum of the two non-adjacent interior angles.
Triangle inequality
The sum of any two sides must be greater than the third side. The difference of any two sides must be less than the third side.
Congruence and similarity
Congruent triangles are identical in shape and size (SSS, SAS, ASA, RHS). Similar triangles have equal angles and proportional sides (AA, SSS ratio, SAS ratio).
Pythagoras theorem
In a right-angled triangle, hypotenuse² = base² + perpendicular². Works only for right triangles.
Circle theorems
Angle in a semicircle is 90°. Angle at centre is twice the angle at circumference subtending the same arc. Tangent is perpendicular to radius at point of contact.
Quadrilateral angle sum
Interior angles of any quadrilateral add up to 360°.
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English Grammar — Hindi and English Language · 12 cards
Parts of Speech (8 types)
Every English word belongs to one of eight categories—Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. The same word can function as different parts depending on context (e.g., "run" can be noun or verb).
Tense = Time + Aspect
Tense indicates when an action occurs (Past/Present/Future) combined with its aspect (Simple/Continuous/Perfect/Perfect Continuous), creating 12 tense forms.
Voice shows subject-action relationship
Active voice = subject performs action; Passive voice = subject receives action. Only transitive verbs (having objects) can be changed to passive.
Narration preserves meaning, changes structure
Direct speech quotes exact words; Indirect speech reports the meaning. Changes occur in pronouns, tenses, and time expressions.
Articles signal noun specificity
"A/An" are indefinite (general reference); "The" is definite (specific reference). Article usage depends on countability, first/subsequent mention, and uniqueness.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Singular subjects take singular verbs; plural subjects take plural verbs. Collective nouns and indefinite pronouns have special rules.
Auxiliary verbs carry grammatical information
Helping verbs (is, am, are, was, were, has, have, had, will, shall, do, does, did) combine with main verbs to form tenses, voice, and questions.
Articles
Use "an" before vowel sounds (an hour, an MBA), not just vowel letters
Tense Shift
In indirect speech: Present → Past, Past → Past Perfect, Will → Would
Voice Rule
Passive structure = Object + be (tense form) + V3 + by + Subject
Narration
"This" → "that", "here" → "there", "now" → "then", "today" → "that day"
Parts of Speech
Adjectives modify nouns; Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs
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English Vocabulary — Hindi and English Language · 12 cards
Synonyms
are words with similar meanings (happy = joyful, glad). Context matters—"big" and "large" are synonyms, but "big decision" sounds natural while "large decision" does not.
Antonyms
are words with opposite meanings (brave ↔ cowardly). Some antonyms are formed using prefixes: happy → unhappy, possible → impossible.
One-word substitution
replaces a phrase or sentence with a single word. Example: "A person who loves books" = Bibliophile. These test precision in language.
Idioms
are phrases where the meaning differs from the literal words. "Kick the bucket" means to die, not actually kicking a bucket.
Prefixes
(un-, dis-, mis-, pre-, anti-) added before root words change meaning. Understanding these helps decode unfamiliar words.
Suffixes
(-tion, -ness, -able, -ment) change word forms. Example: act → action (noun), happy → happiness (noun).
Context clues
in sentences help identify correct vocabulary choices even when you are unsure of exact meanings.
Abandon
Forsake, desert, relinquish
Brave
Courageous, valiant, fearless
Cunning
Sly, crafty, shrewd
Diligent
Hardworking, industrious, assiduous
Enormous
Huge, immense, colossal
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English Reading Comprehension — Hindi and English Language · 7 cards
Main Idea vs. Supporting Details
Every passage has one central theme. Supporting details explain, prove, or illustrate that theme. Questions often ask you to distinguish between them.
Factual Questions
These ask "what," "when," "where," or "who" and the answer is directly stated in the passage. No interpretation needed—locate and lift.
Inference Questions
These ask what can be "concluded," "inferred," or "implied." The answer is not directly stated but logically follows from the information given.
Vocabulary in Context
You may be asked the meaning of a word as used in the passage. The correct answer depends on context, not dictionary definition.
Tone and Attitude
Some questions ask about the author's tone (critical, appreciative, neutral, sarcastic). Look for adjectives, adverbs, and overall word choice.
Title-Based Questions
"The best title for this passage is..." requires identifying the central theme in a concise phrase.
Passage Structure
Understand how paragraphs connect—introduction, argument, example, conclusion. This helps locate answers faster.
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Sentence Structure (English) — Hindi and English Language · 12 cards
Subject-Verb Agreement
The verb must agree with the subject in number (singular/plural) and person. Identify the true subject, ignoring intervening phrases.
Parallel Structure
Items in a list or series must follow the same grammatical form. If one item is a noun, all should be nouns; if one is a gerund, all should be gerunds.
Correct Use of Tenses
Maintain tense consistency within a sentence unless a time shift is logically required. Mixing past and present without reason is a common error.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun must clearly refer to a specific noun (antecedent) and agree in number and gender. Ambiguous pronoun references create confusion.
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Modifiers should be placed close to the word they modify. A dangling modifier has no clear word to modify in the sentence.
Correct Word Order
English follows Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) order. Deviations (except in questions or for emphasis) often indicate errors.
Logical Connectors for Rearrangement
Words like however, therefore, moreover, firstly, finally signal the flow of ideas and help determine sentence order.
Redundancy and Wordiness
Good sentences avoid unnecessary repetition. Phrases like "return back" or "repeat again" are redundant and must be corrected.
Either...or / Neither...nor
Correct Usage: Verb agrees with the nearer subject · Example: Either he or his friends are coming (Correct: are)
Collective nouns
Correct Usage: Singular verb when acting as one unit · Example: The team is playing well
Each, every, everyone
Correct Usage: Always singular · Example: Each of the boys has a book
Not only...but also
Correct Usage: Parallel structure required · Example: Not only intelligent but also works hard ✗
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Hindi Vyakaran — Hindi and English Language · 12 cards
संज्ञा (Noun)
is the naming word for persons, places, things, qualities, or ideas. It has five types: व्यक्तिवाचक, जातिवाचक, भाववाचक, समूहवाचक, and द्रव्यवाचक.
सर्वनाम (Pronoun)
replaces a noun to avoid repetition. The six types are: पुरुषवाचक (मैं, तुम, वह), निश्चयवाचक (यह, वह), अनिश्चयवाचक (कोई, कुछ), प्रश्नवाचक (कौन, क्या), संबंधवाचक (जो, सो), and निजवाचक (आप, अपना).
विशेषण (Adjective)
qualifies a noun or pronoun. Four main types: गुणवाचक (अच्छा, बुरा), संख्यावाचक (दो, तीन), परिमाणवाचक (थोड़ा, बहुत), and सार्वनामिक (यह, वह when used before nouns).
क्रिया (Verb)
denotes action or state. Classified as सकर्मक (transitive—needs an object) and अकर्मक (intransitive—complete without object). The base form is called धातु.
काल (Tense)
indicates time of action: भूतकाल (past), वर्तमानकाल (present), and भविष्यत्काल (future). Each is further divided into sub-types based on aspect (see the lists below).
कारक (Case)
shows the relationship of nouns/pronouns to the verb. Eight कारक exist, each marked by a specific विभक्ति चिह्न (postposition).
विभक्ति चिह्न (Case Markers)
are the postpositions (ने, को, से, के लिए, etc.) that identify which कारक is being used.
व्यक्तिवाचक
Meaning: Proper noun—specific name · Examples: राम, दिल्ली, गंगा
जातिवाचक
Meaning: Common noun—class of beings/things · Examples: लड़का, नदी, शहर
भाववाचक
Meaning: Abstract noun—quality/state/action · Examples: सुंदरता, बचपन, क्रोध
समूहवाचक
Meaning: Collective noun—group · Examples: सेना, झुंड, सभा
द्रव्यवाचक
Meaning: Material noun—substance · Examples: सोना, पानी, दूध
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Hindi Vocabulary — Hindi and English Language · 12 cards
Paryayvachi Shabd (पर्यायवाची शब्द)
Words having the same or nearly the same meaning. Example: "जल" के पर्यायवाची — पानी, नीर, वारि, अंबु, तोय।
Vilom Shabd (विलोम शब्द)
Words with opposite meanings. These are formed by adding prefixes (उपसर्ग), changing gender, or using completely different root words.
Anekarthi Shabd (अनेकार्थी शब्द)
A single word carrying multiple meanings depending on context. Example: "कनक" means both सोना (gold) and धतूरा (a plant).
One-word Substitution
Replacing a phrase or group of words with a single precise word. Example: "जो कभी न मरे" = अमर।
Tatsam vs Tadbhav distinction
Many synonyms arise from Sanskrit-origin (तत्सम) and Hindi-evolved (तद्भव) pairs. Recognising this helps predict synonyms.
Prefix-based antonyms
Common prefixes like अ-, अन-, नि-, दुर्-, वि- often create opposites. Example: आदर → अनादर।
Context determines meaning
For अनेकार्थी words, the sentence context is crucial. "हार" can mean नecklace or defeat.
आकाश
गगन, नभ, अंबर, व्योम, आसमान
अग्नि
आग, पावक, अनल, वह्नि, दहन
पृथ्वी
धरा, भूमि, वसुधा, अवनि, धरती
सूर्य
रवि, भानु, दिनकर, भास्कर, आदित्य
चंद्रमा
चाँद, शशि, राकेश, निशाकर, इंदु
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Hindi Muhavare and Lokoktiyan — Hindi and English Language · 12 cards
Muhavara (मुहावरा)
An idiomatic phrase that gains special meaning when used in a sentence; it cannot stand alone as a complete thought. Example: "आँखें खुलना" means "to realise the truth," not literally "eyes opening."
Lokokti (लोकोक्ति)
A complete, self-contained sentence expressing traditional wisdom passed through generations. Also called "कहावत" (proverb). Example: "जैसा करोगे वैसा भरोगे" — As you sow, so shall you reap.
Literal vs Figurative Meaning
Muhavare always have a figurative meaning different from the literal word-by-word translation. Exams test whether you know the accepted figurative meaning.
Context Usage
Muhavare require a subject and verb structure to complete them; lokoktiyan are quoted as standalone wisdom statements.
Regional Variations
Some lokoktiyan have slight variations across Hindi-speaking regions, but standard Hindi examinations use the most widely accepted versions.
Origin Connection
Many idioms originate from historical events, rural life, or mythological stories — understanding the origin sometimes helps remember the meaning.
आँखों का तारा
अत्यंत प्रिय (most beloved)
आँखें दिखाना
क्रोध करना / धमकाना (to threaten)
आँखें खुलना
सच्चाई का पता चलना (to realise truth)
आस्तीन का साँप
विश्वासघाती मित्र (a traitor friend)
अंधे की लाठी
एकमात्र सहारा (only support)
अपना उल्लू सीधा करना
स्वार्थ सिद्ध करना (to serve self-interest)
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Sandhi and Samas — Hindi and English Language · 10 cards
Swar Sandhi
Sub-type: Deergh · Rule: Same swar + Same swar = Deergh swar · Example: विद्या + आलय = विद्यालय (आ + आ = आ)
Vyanjan Sandhi
Sub-type: — · Rule: Consonant changes based on following sound · Example: दिक् + गज = दिग्गज
Visarg Sandhi
Sub-type: — · Rule: Visarg (ः) changes to स्, श्, ष्, र्, or merges · Example: निः + चय = निश्चय
Karak
Sub-type: Vibhakti · Rule: Example · Example: Vigraha
Karm
Sub-type: को · Rule: ग्रामगत · Example: ग्राम को गत
Karan
Sub-type: से/द्वारा · Rule: रेखांकित · Example: रेखा द्वारा अंकित
Sampradaan
Sub-type: के लिए · Rule: देशभक्ति · Example: देश के लिए भक्ति
Apadaan
Sub-type: से (अलग) · Rule: ऋणमुक्त · Example: ऋण से मुक्त
Sambandh
Sub-type: का/के/की · Rule: राजपुत्र · Example: राजा का पुत्र
Adhikaran
Sub-type: में/पर · Rule: घुड़सवार · Example: घोड़े पर सवार
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Hindi Reading Comprehension — Hindi and English Language · 12 cards
गद्यांश (Gadyansh)
= Prose passage; always unseen (अपठित) in exams — you cannot prepare the exact content, only the approach.
शीर्षक (Sheershak)
= Title — questions often ask for an appropriate title; choose one that captures the central theme, not a minor detail.
मूल भाव / केंद्रीय विचार
= Central idea or main theme — the single most important message the author wants to convey.
संदर्भ में अर्थ
= Contextual meaning — a word's meaning as used in the passage, which may differ from its dictionary meaning.
निष्कर्ष / निहितार्थ
= Conclusion or implication — what can be logically inferred even if not directly stated.
लेखक का दृष्टिकोण
= Author's viewpoint or tone — whether the author is critical, supportive, neutral, or persuasive.
समानार्थी / विलोम
= Synonym/antonym questions based on passage vocabulary — test both meaning and context.
तथ्यात्मक प्रश्न
= Factual questions — answers found directly in the passage; requires careful reading, not interpretation.
Title
Hindi Term: उचित शीर्षक · What to Look For: Central theme in 2–4 words
Main idea
Hindi Term: मुख्य विचार · What to Look For: First and last paragraphs usually contain it
Factual
Hindi Term: तथ्य आधारित · What to Look For: Exact words/phrases from passage
Vocabulary
Hindi Term: शब्दार्थ · What to Look For: Meaning fitting the sentence context
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History of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Harappan Connection
Sites like Rakhigarhi (Hisar), Banawali (Fatehabad), and Mitathal (Bhiwani) prove Haryana was part of the Indus Valley Civilization. Rakhigarhi is among the largest Harappan sites in India.
Vedic Heartland
The Saraswati-Drishadvati river region (modern Haryana) was called Brahmavarta — the land where Vedic hymns were composed. Kurukshetra remains sacred as the site of the Mahabharata war.
Strategic Gateway
Haryana's location made it the entry point for invaders into the Gangetic plains. Whoever controlled Panipat and Tarain controlled access to Delhi and North India.
Two Battles of Tarain
(1191 and 1192): These battles between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan established Muslim rule in North India. The second battle (1192) was the turning point.
Three Battles of Panipat
Fought in 1526, 1556, and 1761, each battle dramatically altered India's political landscape — establishing the Mughal Empire, restoring it, and weakening the Marathas respectively.
1857 Revolt Participation
Haryana actively participated in the First War of Independence. Rao Tula Ram of Rewari and Rao Kishan Gopal of Farrukhnagar were prominent leaders.
Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience
Haryana contributed significantly to Gandhian movements. The region produced notable freedom fighters who participated in various protests and faced imprisonment.
Rakhigarhi
Largest Harappan site in India, located in Hisar district; excavations reveal advanced urban planning
Banawali
Fatehabad district; unique radial street pattern; terracotta model of a plough found (the ploughed field was found at Kalibangan, Rajasthan)
Battle of Tarain I
1191 — Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori
Battle of Tarain II
1192 — Muhammad Ghori defeated and killed Prithviraj Chauhan; Muslim rule begins
First Battle of Panipat
21 April 1526 — Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi; Mughal Empire established
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Geography of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Location and Boundaries
Haryana lies between 27°39′ N to 30°55′ N latitude and 74°28′ E to 77°36′ E longitude. It shares borders with five states and two Union Territories (Delhi and Chandigarh).
Administrative Divisions
22 districts grouped into 6 divisions—Ambala, Karnal, Rohtak, Hisar, Gurugram, and Faridabad. Total area is approximately 44,212 km².
Physiographic Regions
The state has three broad zones—Shivalik Hills in the north, Indo-Gangetic Plain (alluvial) in the centre, and Aravalli outliers plus sandy tracts in the south-southwest.
Drainage Pattern
No perennial rivers originate within Haryana. Yamuna forms the eastern boundary; Ghaggar is the most important seasonal (ephemeral) river flowing through the state's interior.
Climate Type
Haryana has a continental climate with hot summers (up to 48°C), cold winters (as low as 1°C), and monsoon rains (July–September). Average annual rainfall ranges from 300 mm (southwest) to 1100 mm (northeast).
Agro-Climatic Zones
The state is divided into multiple zones for planning purposes—each zone has distinct soil, rainfall, and crop suitability.
Soil Types
Alluvial soils dominate the plains; sandy soils appear in southwestern districts; and saline-alkaline patches occur in low-lying areas.
State formation
1 November 1966
Total area
44,212 km² (1.34% of India)
Highest point
Karoh Peak (Morni Hills, Panchkula) – approx. 1,467 m
Major perennial river
Yamuna (eastern boundary, ~320 km along Haryana)
Major seasonal river
Ghaggar (originates in Himachal, enters near Pinjore)
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Agriculture of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Wheat is Haryana's principal crop
, occupying the largest cultivated area. Haryana is one of India's leading wheat-producing states (the top three in 2023-24 were Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab), with major production in Karnal, Kurukshetra, Kaithal, and Jind districts.
Paddy (rice) is the second major crop
, grown primarily during the Kharif season. Karnal district is known as the "Rice Bowl of Haryana." Basmati rice from Karnal has geographical indication (GI) recognition.
Mustard is the primary oilseed crop
, with Haryana being a leading producer. Mahendragarh, Rewari, and Bhiwani districts are major mustard-growing areas.
Green Revolution transformed Haryana's agriculture
in the late 1960s through high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, and assured irrigation—turning the state from food deficit to food surplus.
Canal irrigation dominates
, with the Western Yamuna Canal (oldest canal system: first dug under Firoz Shah Tughlaq in the 14th century and restored by the British from 1817) and Bhakra Canal System being the primary sources. Tubewells supplement canal irrigation in many areas.
Dairy farming is a crucial allied activity
, with Haryana ranking among top milk-producing states. The Vita brand, marketed by the Haryana Dairy Development Co-operative Federation (HDDCF), is the state's premier dairy product line.
Murrah buffalo is Haryana's pride
a superior dairy breed originating in Rohtak and Hisar districts, known globally for high milk yield and fat content.
Crop diversification is a policy priority
due to over-dependence on wheat-paddy cycle, which strains groundwater and reduces soil fertility.
Total cropped area
Approximately 65 lakh hectares
Net sown area
About 80% of total geographical area (one of highest in India)
Cropping intensity
Over 180% (indicates extensive double/triple cropping)
Principal Kharif crops
Paddy, bajra, cotton, sugarcane, jowar
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Economy of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Dual Economy Structure
Haryana has a balanced mix of agriculture (contributing about 15-18% to GSDP) and industry-services (over 80% combined). The western region is more agricultural while the eastern belt is industrial.
Gurugram-Manesar Industrial Corridor
This is India's largest automobile manufacturing hub, producing over 50% of the country's passenger cars. Major players include Maruti Suzuki, Hero MotoCorp, and Honda.
IT/ITeS Hub
Gurugram is India's third-largest IT hub after Bengaluru and Hyderabad. Cyber City and DLF IT parks house headquarters of major MNCs and BPOs.
MSME Dominance
Over 9 lakh MSMEs operate in Haryana, employing millions. Faridabad, Panipat, and Ambala are traditional MSME clusters.
Make in India and Ease of Doing Business
Haryana consistently ranks among top states in ease of doing business. Single-window clearance system through "Invest Haryana" portal streamlines approvals.
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
Multiple SEZs exist in Gurugram, Panchkula, and Jhajjar for IT, apparel, and manufacturing sectors.
Panipat Textile Industry
Panipat is called the "City of Weavers" and "Textile City" — one of Asia's largest hubs for handloom and recycled textiles, producing blankets, carpets, and furnishings.
Refinery and Petrochemicals
The Indian Oil Panipat Refinery is one of India's largest refineries with 15 MMTPA capacity.
GSDP (2023-24)
Approximately ₹11 lakh crore
Per Capita Income
Among highest in India (over ₹2.7 lakh annually)
Major Industrial Districts
Gurugram, Faridabad, Panipat, Ambala, Sonipat, Rewari
Automobile Share
50% of India's passenger cars, 60% of motorcycles
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Administrative Setup — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
State Formation
Haryana was created on 1 November 1966 under the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966. Chandigarh became the shared capital of both Punjab and Haryana.
Current District Count
Haryana has 22 districts as of 2024. The newest district is Charkhi Dadri, carved out of Bhiwani in 2016.
Divisional System
The state is divided into 6 administrative divisions, each headed by a Divisional Commissioner. These divisions group multiple districts for better coordination.
District Administration
Each district is headed by a Deputy Commissioner (DC), who is the chief coordinating officer for all government departments at the district level. The Superintendent of Police (SP) handles law and order.
Sub-Divisional Structure
Districts are divided into sub-divisions headed by Sub-Divisional Officers (SDO) or Sub-Divisional Magistrates (SDM).
Tehsil and Block
Below sub-divisions, Tehsils handle revenue matters (headed by Tehsildar), while Blocks manage development programmes (headed by Block Development Officer).
Village-Level
The Patwari is the revenue official at the village level, maintaining land records. Gram Panchayats handle local self-governance.
Constitutional and Statutory Bodies
Haryana has its own Public Service Commission (HPSC), State Election Commission, Lokayukta, and State Human Rights Commission.
State formation date
1 November 1966
State capital
Chandigarh (shared with Punjab)
Largest district (area)
Sirsa
Smallest district (area)
Faridabad
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Culture and Heritage of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Haryanvi folk culture is agrarian-centric
Most dances and songs celebrate sowing, harvesting, monsoon, and seasonal changes. The farming calendar dictates cultural expression.
Gender-specific performance traditions
Many folk dances are exclusively performed by women (Ghoomar, Loor, Teej) while Saang theatre has been traditionally male-dominated.
Ragni is the soul of Haryanvi music
This poetic-musical form uses the doha-chaubola metre and forms the backbone of Saang performances and standalone musical gatherings.
Saang (or Swang) is folk opera
It combines dialogue, Ragni singing, dance, and drama—a complete theatrical experience performed overnight in open grounds.
Seasonal festivals follow the Hindu lunar calendar
Teej (Sawan), Gugga Navami (Bhadrapada), Holi, and Baisakhi mark agricultural and religious milestones.
Instruments are indigenous and simple
Dholak, harmonium, sarangi, been, chimta, and manjira accompany most folk performances.
Hero worship and oral tradition
Many songs and performances commemorate local heroes, saints, and historical figures like Raja Harish Chandra.
Ghoomar
Circular dance by women; performed at weddings and Teej; dancers wear colourful ghagra-choli and spin gracefully
Loor
Pre-Holi dance by unmarried girls; sung during Phagan (February-March); themes of love and spring
Phag
Holi dance celebrating colours and harvest; performed by men and women together
Dhamal
Vigorous dance by men during Holi; accompanies drum beats; common in Jhajjar and Gurugram
Khoria
Harvest dance performed after Diwali; thanksgiving for good crop
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Cuisine and Customs — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Bajra-centric diet
Bajra (pearl millet) is the staple grain of Haryana, especially in rural areas. Bajra roti with ghee is the signature meal, providing high nutrition and energy for agricultural work.
Ghee as the soul of Haryanvi cooking
Generous use of ghee (clarified butter) distinguishes Haryanvi cuisine. The saying "Doodh-Dahi ka khana" reflects the dairy-rich dietary tradition.
Seasonal eating pattern
Diet changes with seasons — bajra in winters (provides warmth), wheat and lighter foods in summers. Lassi and chaach (buttermilk) are summer staples.
Community eating (Bhojan)
Large community meals during weddings, festivals and religious gatherings are customary. Food is served on pattals (leaf plates) in traditional settings.
Patriarchal household customs
Traditional joint family system with the eldest male as head. Women traditionally eat after serving male members.
Khap Panchayat system
Traditional social institution of clan-based governance. Regulates marriages, disputes and social conduct within the community.
Gotra and marriage customs
Marriages within same gotra, village or neighbouring villages (with common ancestry) are traditionally prohibited.
Bajra Roti
Key Ingredients: Bajra flour, ghee · Special Notes: Winter staple; served with ghee and gur
Kadhi
Key Ingredients: Buttermilk, besan, pakoras · Special Notes: Sour curry; eaten with rice or roti
Churma
Key Ingredients: Coarsely ground wheat, ghee, gur/sugar · Special Notes: Sweet dish; made from crushed rotis
Khichdi
Key Ingredients: Rice, moong dal, ghee · Special Notes: Simple comfort food; given during illness
Bathua Raita
Key Ingredients: Bathua leaves, curd · Special Notes: Seasonal dish; rich in iron
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Famous Personalities — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Sir Chhotu Ram (1881–1945)
Known as "Deenbandhu" (friend of the poor) and "Rahbar-e-Azam," he championed peasant rights in undivided Punjab. His legislation protected farmers from moneylender exploitation.
Lala Lajpat Rai (1865–1928)
Called "Punjab Kesari" (Lion of Punjab), he was a prominent freedom fighter, Arya Samaj leader, and one of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio. He died from injuries sustained during a lathi charge while protesting the Simon Commission.
Bansi Lal (1927–2006)
Three-time Chief Minister of Haryana, Union Defence Minister, and architect of modern Haryana's infrastructure. Known for his strong administrative style and development of Bhiwani.
Chaudhary Devi Lal (1914–2001)
Called "Tau" (elder uncle) by the masses, he served as Deputy Prime Minister of India and twice as Chief Minister of Haryana. He founded the Indian National Lok Dal (INLD) and championed farmers' causes.
P V Sindhu (born 1995)
She was born in Hyderabad and is not from Haryana; Haryana's badminton Olympic medallist is Saina Nehwal (born in Hisar; bronze, London 2012). She is a two-time Olympic medallist in badminton (Silver 2016, Bronze 2020) and World Champion (2019).
Yogeshwar Dutt (born 1982)
Olympic bronze medallist (2012 London) in freestyle wrestling (60 kg category). He hails from Bhainswal Kalan village, Sonipat district, and received Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna (2012).
Sir Chhotu Ram
Birth Year: 1881 · Birthplace: Garhisampla, Rohtak · Key Title/Epithet: Deenbandhu, Rahbar-e-Azam · Major Achievement: Punjab Relief of Indebtedness Act (1934), Punjab Debtor's Protection Act (1936)
Lala Lajpat Rai
Birth Year: 1865 · Birthplace: Dhudike, Moga (Punjab) · Key Title/Epithet: Punjab Kesari · Major Achievement: Led protests against Simon Commission (1928), founded Servants of the People Society
Bansi Lal
Birth Year: 1927 · Birthplace: Golagarh, Bhiwani · Key Title/Epithet: - · Major Achievement: Three-time CM, Union Defence Minister, built Haryana Roadways and canal network
Chaudhary Devi Lal
Birth Year: 1914 · Birthplace: Teja Khera, Sirsa · Key Title/Epithet: Tau · Major Achievement: Deputy PM of India (1989–91), twice CM of Haryana, INLD founder
P V Sindhu
Birth Year: 1995 · Birthplace: Hyderabad · Key Title/Epithet: - · Major Achievement: Olympic Silver (2016), Bronze (2020), World Champion (2019), Padma Bhushan (2020)
Yogeshwar Dutt
Birth Year: 1982 · Birthplace: Bhainswal Kalan, Sonipat · Key Title/Epithet: - · Major Achievement: Olympic Bronze (2012), Arjuna Award (2009), Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna (2012)
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Sports of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Wrestling Capital
Haryana is often called the wrestling nursery of India, with districts like Sonipat, Rohtak, and Jhajjar producing world-class wrestlers.
Olympic Medal Tally
Haryana athletes have won medals in wrestling, boxing, and athletics across multiple Olympic Games, especially from 2008 Beijing onwards.
Khel Ratna and Arjuna Awardees
Multiple Haryanvi sportspersons have received India's highest sporting honours, including Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award.
Cash Reward Policy
Haryana offers India's highest cash rewards to Olympic medallists — ₹6 crore for gold, ₹4 crore for silver, ₹2.5 crore for bronze (revised periodically).
Sports Academies
SAI (Sports Authority of India) centres at Sonipat and Hisar, and Chaudhary Bansi Lal Sports School at Bhiwani (boxing hub) are key training grounds.
Kabaddi Dominance
Haryana Steelers won their first Pro Kabaddi League title in Season 11 (2024); the state provides maximum players to the Indian kabaddi team.
Rural Sports Culture
Dangal (wrestling competitions) and kabaddi tournaments are integral to village festivals, creating a grassroots talent pipeline.
Women in Sports
Haryana has produced several women Olympic medallists, challenging traditional gender norms through sports excellence.
First Olympic medallist from Haryana
Sushil Kumar (Bronze, 2008 Beijing, Wrestling)
First Indian (since independence) with two individual Olympic medals
Sushil Kumar (Bronze 2008, Silver 2012)
First Indian woman wrestler to win Olympic medal
Sakshi Malik (Bronze, 2016 Rio)
Bhiwani is called
"Mini Cuba" for boxing
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Welfare Schemes of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP)
Centrally-sponsored scheme launched by PM Modi from Panipat (22 January 2015); aims to improve child sex ratio, ensure girl child education, and prevent gender-based discrimination.
Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana
Savings scheme for girl child linked with BBBP; minimum deposit ₹250/year, matures 21 years after the account is opened, offers tax benefits under Section 80C.
Saksham Yuva Yojana
Launched in 2016 to provide unemployment allowance to educated youth; graduates get ₹2,000/month and post-graduates ₹3,500/month (revised in August 2024; earlier ₹1,500 and ₹3,000); beneficiaries must have 10+2 or higher qualification and family income below ₹3 lakh/year.
Mukhyamantri Vivah Shagun Yojana
Financial assistance at the time of marriage of ₹71,000 for daughters of SC, Vimukta Jati and Tapriwas families and ₹51,000 for daughters of backward-class families (income up to ₹1.80 lakh); women sportspersons and some other groups also get ₹51,000; amount varies by category.
Ayushman Bharat – Chirayu Haryana
State extension of Ayushman Bharat providing health coverage up to ₹5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary hospitalization.
Lado Lakshmi Yojana
Announced in 2024 and launched on 25 September 2025; gives ₹2,100 a month to women aged 23 to 60 from families with annual income up to ₹1 lakh.
Mukhyamantri Antyodaya Parivar Utthan Yojana
Targets families with annual income below ₹1 lakh; aims to raise their income to ₹1.8 lakh through skill development and employment linkage using Parivar Pehchan Patra (PPP) data.
Parivar Pehchan Patra (PPP)
Unique family ID system in Haryana; links all welfare scheme benefits to a single family identity document; mandatory for availing most state schemes.
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao
Launch Year: 2015 (from Panipat) · Key Benefit: Awareness, CSR improvement
Mukhyamantri Vivah Shagun
Launch Year: 2005 (revised multiple times) · Key Benefit: ₹71,000 for SC/DNT/Tapriwas girls' marriage; ₹51,000 for BC and other eligible girls
Ayushman Bharat – Chirayu
Launch Year: 2022 · Key Benefit: ₹5 lakh health cover per family
Mukhyamantri Antyodaya Parivar Utthan
Launch Year: 2021 · Key Benefit: Uplift families earning < ₹1 lakh
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Tourist Places of Haryana — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
Kurukshetra as Dharmakshetra
The land where the Mahabharata war was fought; it contains numerous sacred tanks (sarovars) and temples associated with Lord Krishna and the Gita sermon.
Pinjore Gardens (Yadavindra Gardens)
A Mughal-style terraced garden built by Nawab Fidai Khan, featuring the classic Charbagh layout with fountains, pavilions, and flowering plants.
Sultanpur National Park
A wetland bird sanctuary near Gurugram, home to both migratory and resident bird species; declared a National Park in 1991.
Surajkund
An ancient sun-worship tank built by King Surajpal of the Tomar dynasty in the 10th century; famous for the annual International Crafts Mela held every February.
District-specific identification
Know which tourist spot belongs to which district.
Religious tourism vs heritage tourism
Haryana offers both — Kurukshetra and Pehowa for religious pilgrimage; Pinjore, Surajkund, and forts for heritage enthusiasts.
Wildlife and eco-tourism
Sultanpur Lake, Kalesar National Park (Yamunanagar), and Bhindawas (Jhajjar) represent Haryana's ecological tourism potential.
Kurukshetra
District: Kurukshetra · Key Feature: Site of Mahabharata war; Brahma Sarovar; Sri Krishna Museum
Pinjore Gardens
District: Panchkula · Key Feature: Mughal garden; Yadavindra Gardens; Mango Festival
Morni Hills
District: Panchkula · Key Feature: Only hill station of Haryana; two natural lakes
Kalesar National Park
District: Yamunanagar · Key Feature: Sal forest; elephants and leopards; Shivalik foothills
Bhindawas Bird Sanctuary
District: Jhajjar · Key Feature: Largest wetland in Haryana; Ramsar site (2021)
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Haryana Current Affairs — Haryana — General Knowledge · 12 cards
State Government Structure
Haryana has 22 districts grouped into 6 administrative divisions (Ambala, Rohtak, Gurugram, Hisar, Karnal, Faridabad). The current Chief Minister is Nayab Singh Saini (BJP), who assumed office in March 2024. The Governor is Bandaru Dattatreya.
Flagship Welfare Schemes
The state government runs several schemes targeting youth employment (Saksham Yuva), girl child welfare (Ladli scheme, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao), farmer support (Meri Fasal Mera Byora), and senior citizens (Old Age Samman Allowance).
Industrial and Economic Corridors
Haryana is part of the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) with nodes at Manesar-Bawal. The state hosts India's largest auto hub in Gurugram-Manesar, with Maruti Suzuki and Honda manufacturing plants.
Sports Excellence
Haryana is consistently among the top states at the National Games (third in 2022, 2023 and 2025, behind Services and Maharashtra). The state has produced Olympic medallists in wrestling, boxing, and badminton. Khelo India Youth Games and state-level Khel Mahakumbh are major sporting initiatives.
Digital Governance
Antyodaya Saral portal provides single-window access to 500+ government services. Parivar Pehchan Patra (PPP) is a unique family ID system linking benefits delivery.
Infrastructure Projects
Dwarka Expressway (connecting Delhi-Gurugram), Kundli-Manesar-Palwal (KMP) Expressway, and Delhi-Mumbai Expressway (passing through Haryana) are major highway projects.
Chief Minister
Nayab Singh Saini (since March 2024)
Governor
Bandaru Dattatreya
Total Districts
22 (latest: Charkhi Dadri carved from Bhiwani in 2016)
State Bird
Black Francolin (Kala Teetar)
State Animal
Black Buck
State Flower
Lotus
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Computer Fundamentals — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Computer Definition
An electronic device that accepts data (input), processes it according to instructions (program), and produces results (output). It follows the IPO cycle: Input → Process → Output.
Hardware vs Software
Hardware refers to physical, tangible components (keyboard, monitor, CPU). Software refers to programs and instructions that tell hardware what to do.
Types of Computers by Size
Supercomputer (fastest, used for scientific research) → Mainframe (large organisations, banking) → Minicomputer → Microcomputer (personal computers, laptops).
Generations of Computers
First (vacuum tubes) → Second (transistors) → Third (integrated circuits) → Fourth (microprocessors) → Fifth (artificial intelligence, current era).
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The "brain" of the computer with three parts—ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit for calculations), CU (Control Unit for coordination), and Registers (temporary storage).
Memory Hierarchy
Registers → Cache → RAM (primary, volatile) → Hard Disk/SSD (secondary, non-volatile). Speed decreases and capacity increases as you go down.
Operating System Role
System software that acts as an interface between user and hardware. Manages files, memory, processes, and devices. Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS, Android.
Booting
The process of starting a computer and loading the operating system into RAM. Cold boot (from off state) vs Warm boot (restart).
Bit
Smallest unit of data (0 or 1)
Byte
8 bits = 1 byte
KB, MB, GB, TB
1 KB = 1024 bytes; 1 MB = 1024 KB; 1 GB = 1024 MB; 1 TB = 1024 GB
RAM
Random Access Memory—volatile, temporary storage, loses data when power off
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Windows Operating System — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Operating System (OS)
System software that manages computer hardware, software resources, and provides common services for application programs. Windows is a GUI-based OS developed by Microsoft.
Desktop
The main screen after Windows starts. Contains icons (shortcuts to programs/files), wallpaper (background image), and the Taskbar at the bottom.
Taskbar
Horizontal bar at screen bottom containing Start button, Search bar, pinned apps, system tray (notification area), and clock. Shows all open applications.
Start Menu
Accessed by clicking Start button or pressing Windows key. Contains list of installed programs, power options, settings, and user account options.
File Explorer (Windows Explorer)
Application to browse, manage, and organize files and folders. Access via folder icon on Taskbar or Windows + E shortcut.
Control Panel / Settings
Central location to configure system settings—display, network, user accounts, programs, hardware, and security options.
Recycle Bin
Temporary storage for deleted files. Files can be restored or permanently deleted from here. Emptying Recycle Bin frees disk space.
File Extensions
Suffix indicating file type—.txt (text), .docx (Word), .xlsx (Excel), .pdf (PDF), .exe (executable program), .jpg/.png (images).
Icons
Small graphical representations of files, folders, or programs on Desktop
Shortcut
Link to a file/program stored elsewhere; has small arrow on icon
Notification Area
Right side of Taskbar; shows date, time, volume, network, and background apps
Quick Access
File Explorer section showing frequently used and pinned folders
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MS Word — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Document creation
A new blank document opens by default when Word starts. Use File → New or Ctrl + N for additional new documents. Documents are saved with the .docx extension (or .doc for older versions).
Ribbon interface
The top area containing tabs (Home, Insert, Page Layout, etc.), each tab divided into Groups containing related commands. The Quick Access Toolbar sits above the Ribbon for frequently used commands.
Font formatting
Includes font type (Arial, Times New Roman), font size, bold (B), italic (I), underline (U), font colour, highlight colour and text effects — all found in the Home tab → Font group.
Paragraph formatting
Alignment (left, centre, right, justify), line spacing, indentation, bullets, numbering and borders — located in Home tab → Paragraph group.
Page Layout settings
Paper size (A4, Letter, Legal), orientation (Portrait/Landscape), margins, columns and page breaks — found under Page Layout tab.
Tables
Grid structures for organising data. Insert via Insert tab → Table. Tables can be formatted, merged, split and sorted.
Headers and Footers
Content appearing at the top (header) or bottom (footer) of every page — page numbers, document title, date. Accessed via Insert tab.
Print Preview and Printing
File → Print shows preview and printer settings. Ctrl + P is the shortcut for the Print dialog.
New document
File → New or Ctrl + N
Open document
File → Open or Ctrl + O
Save document
File → Save or Ctrl + S
Save As (new name/location)
File → Save As or F12
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MS Excel — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Workbook vs Worksheet
A workbook is the entire Excel file (.xlsx), while a worksheet is a single sheet (tab) within that workbook. One workbook can contain multiple worksheets.
Cell Address
Each cell is identified by its column letter and row number (e.g., A1, B5, C10). This address is used in formulas to reference data.
Active Cell
The currently selected cell where data entry occurs, shown with a dark border.
Cell Range
A group of cells referenced together (e.g., A1:A10 means cells A1 through A10; A1:C5 means a rectangular block).
Relative vs Absolute Reference
Relative references (A1) change when copied to other cells. Absolute references ($A$1) remain fixed. Mixed references ($A1 or A$1) lock either column or row.
Formula Bar
The bar above the worksheet where you can view and edit the contents of the active cell, including formulas.
AutoFill
A feature to automatically extend a series (numbers, dates, formulas) by dragging the fill handle (small square at cell corner).
Data Types
Excel recognizes numbers, text, dates, and formulas. Numbers align right by default; text aligns left.
SUM
Syntax: =SUM(A1:A10) · Purpose: Adds all numbers in a range
AVERAGE
Syntax: =AVERAGE(A1:A10) · Purpose: Calculates arithmetic mean
COUNT
Syntax: =COUNT(A1:A10) · Purpose: Counts cells containing numbers
COUNTA
Syntax: =COUNTA(A1:A10) · Purpose: Counts non-empty cells (including text)
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MS PowerPoint — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Presentation file
A PowerPoint file (.pptx) contains multiple slides arranged in sequence; each slide can hold text, images, charts, audio, and video.
Ribbon interface
PowerPoint 2007 onwards uses the Ribbon — a horizontal strip with tabs (Home, Insert, Design, Transitions, Animations, Slide Show, Review, View) containing grouped commands.
Slide layouts
Pre-designed arrangements of placeholders for title, content, pictures, etc. Common layouts include Title Slide, Title and Content, Two Content, Blank, and Comparison.
Slide Master
A template slide that controls formatting (fonts, colours, backgrounds) for all slides in the presentation. Changes to Slide Master apply globally.
Placeholders
Dotted-border boxes on slides where you type text or insert content. They ensure consistent positioning across slides.
Transitions
Visual effects when moving from one slide to the next (e.g., Fade, Push, Wipe). Applied per slide or to all slides at once.
Animations
Effects applied to individual objects within a slide — text, images, shapes. Four categories: Entrance, Emphasis, Exit, and Motion Paths.
Slide Show mode
The full-screen presentation mode activated by pressing F5 (from beginning) or Shift+F5 (from current slide).
Default file extension
.pptx (PowerPoint 2007 onwards); .ppt for older versions
Template extension
.potx (template file)
Slide Show extension
.ppsx (opens directly in slideshow mode)
Default slide size
Widescreen (16:9); Standard (4:3) in older versions
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Internet and Web Browsing — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Internet vs World Wide Web (WWW)
Internet is the global network of connected computers; WWW is a service that runs on the internet using HTTP protocol to access web pages. The internet existed before the web.
Web Browser
Software application used to access and display web pages. It interprets HTML, CSS, and JavaScript code to render websites visually. Examples include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, and Safari.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
The complete web address used to access a resource. Structure: protocol://domain-name/path. Example: https://www.haryana.gov.in/departments
Search Engine
A software system that searches a database of internet sites based on keywords. It uses crawlers (bots) to index web pages and algorithms to rank results.
HTTP vs HTTPS
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) transfers data without encryption. HTTPS adds SSL/TLS encryption for secure communication—look for the padlock icon in the address bar.
Download vs Upload
Downloading means transferring files FROM the internet TO your computer. Uploading means transferring files FROM your computer TO the internet.
Cache and Cookies
Cache stores temporary copies of web pages for faster loading. Cookies store user preferences and login information on your device.
ISP (Internet Service Provider)
Company that provides internet connectivity to users. Examples in India: BSNL, Jio, Airtel, ACT Fibernet.
First Web Browser
WorldWideWeb (later Mosaic became popular)
Most Used Browser Globally
Google Chrome
Most Used Search Engine
Google (90%+ market share)
Default Browser in Windows 10/11
Microsoft Edge
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Email — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Email Address Format
Every email address follows the pattern username@domain.com. The @ symbol separates the user's name from the mail server domain (e.g., ravi.kumar@gmail.com).
SMTP, POP3, and IMAP
These are email protocols. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) sends emails. POP3 (Post Office Protocol) downloads emails to your device and usually deletes them from the server. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) keeps emails on the server, allowing access from multiple devices.
Inbox
The default folder where all incoming emails are received. It is the primary location for reading new messages.
CC (Carbon Copy) and BCC (Blind Carbon Copy)
CC sends a copy of the email to additional recipients, and all recipients can see who received the CC. BCC also sends copies, but recipients cannot see BCC addresses — used for privacy.
Attachment
A file (document, image, PDF) sent along with an email. Most email services limit attachment size to 25 MB per email.
Signature
A pre-set block of text (name, designation, contact details) automatically added at the end of every outgoing email.
Spam/Junk Folder
Automatically filters suspected unwanted or promotional emails to protect users from phishing and advertisements.
Draft Folder
Stores emails that are composed but not yet sent. Useful for saving incomplete messages.
To
Primary recipient(s) of the email
CC
Carbon Copy — secondary recipients visible to all
BCC
Blind Carbon Copy — hidden recipients
Subject
Brief title describing email content
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Keyboard Shortcuts — Computer Knowledge · 12 cards
Modifier keys
are the foundation of shortcuts: Ctrl (Control), Alt (Alternate), Shift, and the Windows key. Most shortcuts combine one modifier with a letter or function key.
Ctrl-based shortcuts
are the most common and typically relate to editing and file operations (Copy, Paste, Save, Undo).
Alt-based shortcuts
usually access menus and dialog boxes. Alt+F4 closes programs; Alt+Tab switches between open windows.
Function keys (F1–F12)
perform standalone actions: F1 for Help, F2 for Rename, F5 for Refresh, F11 for Full Screen.
Shift key
often modifies another shortcut to do the opposite action: Ctrl+Z (Undo) vs Ctrl+Y or Ctrl+Shift+Z (Redo).
Windows key shortcuts
control the operating system: Win+D shows desktop, Win+E opens File Explorer, Win+L locks the computer.
Shortcuts are transferable
Ctrl+C for Copy works in Windows, Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and most other applications.
Ctrl+C
Copy selected item
Ctrl+X
Cut selected item
Ctrl+V
Paste
Ctrl+Z
Undo last action
Ctrl+Y
Redo (reverse undo)
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