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UPSC Prelims · Flashcards

UPSC Prelims flashcards

870 cards from 74 fact-checked topic notes · English

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Current Events of National and International Importance — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Government Schemes as Policy Tools
New schemes (PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana, PM-JANMAN for PVTGs, Vibrant Villages Programme) reflect policy priorities. Understand the ministry, target beneficiaries, funding pattern, and constitutional/legal basis.
India's Multi-Alignment Diplomacy
India balances relations with the West (Quad, iCET with USA), Russia (energy, defence), and the Global South (Voice of Global South Summit). No single bloc defines India's foreign policy.
Multilateral Summits and Groupings
G20 (India's presidency 2023), BRICS expansion (new members: UAE, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran), SCO, ASEAN, I2U2 (India-Israel-UAE-USA) — know the focus areas, declarations, and India's stance.
Science Missions as National Pride
Chandrayaan-3's successful soft landing, Aditya-L1 (solar mission), Gaganyaan test flights, and NISAR satellite reflect ISRO's expanding capabilities.
Reports and Indices
Global Hunger Index, Human Development Index, World Happiness Report, Climate Performance Index — know India's rank, the publishing body, methodology criticisms, and government responses.
Constitutional and Legal Developments
Supreme Court judgments (Article 370 abrogation upheld, same-sex marriage, electoral bonds struck down) are important.
Defence Indigenisation
Focus on indigenous platforms — INS Vikrant, Tejas MK1A, Agni-5 with MIRV (Mission Divyastra), Project 75 submarines.
G20 2023
Theme: "One Earth, One Family, One Future"; New Delhi Leaders' Declaration; African Union admitted as permanent member
Chandrayaan-3
Landed 23 August 2023 at Shiv Shakti Point (south pole region); Vikram lander + Pragyan rover; India = 4th country for soft landing, 1st at south pole
Aditya-L1
India's first solar observatory; stationed at Lagrange Point 1 (L1), ~1.5 million km from Earth
BRICS Expansion
2024 onwards: Original 5 + Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, UAE, Saudi Arabia (later paused participation)
Electoral Bonds
Struck down by SC in February 2024 as violating Article 19(1)(a) — right to information
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National Affairs — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Government Schemes
are classified by implementing ministry, target beneficiary (women, farmers, youth, SC/ST), and funding pattern (Centrally Sponsored vs Central Sector). Know the difference: CSS requires state contribution; Central Sector schemes are 100% Union-funded.
Legislative Process
awareness is crucial — track major Bills passed, ordinances promulgated, and amendments to existing Acts. Note whether Bills were passed by voice vote, division, or after Joint Parliamentary Committee review.
Judicial Pronouncements
shaping governance include Constitution Bench decisions on fundamental rights, federal relations, and electoral matters. Supreme Court guidelines often acquire the force of law until Parliament legislates.
Parliamentary Developments
include new committees formed, privilege motions, censure motions, floor tests, and procedural innovations. Speaker's rulings and disqualification matters under the Tenth Schedule can be tested.
Policy Decisions
by Cabinet, Cabinet Committees, or through executive orders carry implementation weight even without legislation. Distinguish between policy announcements and actual notifications/rules.
National Events
of significance include census-related developments, delimitation exercises, state elections, national emergencies, and commemorations of constitutional importance.
Institutional Reforms
changes in functioning of constitutional bodies (ECI, CAG, UPSC) and statutory bodies (NHRC, CIC, CVC) deserve attention.
Flagship Schemes
PM-KISAN (₹6000/year to farmers), Ayushman Bharat (₹5 lakh health cover), MGNREGA (100 days guaranteed work), PM Awas Yojana, Jal Jeevan Mission (Har Ghar Jal)
Recent Legislation
Women's Reservation Act 2023 (33% seats in Lok Sabha/State Assemblies), Telecommunications Act 2023, Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita replacing IPC
Constitutional Amendments
106th Amendment (Women's Reservation), 105th Amendment (restored state power for OBC lists)
Landmark Judgments
Electoral Bonds struck down (2024), Article 370 abrogation upheld (2023), Demonetisation upheld (2023), Same-sex marriage not a fundamental right (2023)
Key Policy Bodies
NITI Aayog (policy think tank), Finance Commission (16th FC operative), GST Council (Article 279A)
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Basics of Economy and National Income — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
measures the total market value of all final goods and services produced within a country's borders during a year, regardless of who produces them (residents or foreigners).
GNP (Gross National Product)
measures output produced by residents of a country (their labour and capital), whether located domestically or abroad. GNP = GDP + Net Factor Income from Abroad (NFIA).
Net vs Gross distinction
"Gross" includes depreciation (consumption of fixed capital); "Net" excludes it. So NDP = GDP − Depreciation, and NNP = GNP − Depreciation.
Market Price vs Factor Cost
Market price includes indirect taxes and excludes subsidies. Factor cost is the payment to factors of production. Factor Cost = Market Price − Indirect Taxes + Subsidies.
Nominal vs Real GDP
Nominal GDP uses current-year prices; Real GDP uses base-year prices, removing inflation effect. Real GDP is the true measure of economic growth.
GDP Deflator
= (Nominal GDP / Real GDP) × 100. It captures economy-wide price changes, unlike CPI or WPI which track specific baskets.
Per Capita Income
= National Income / Population. It indicates average standard of living but hides inequality.
The Circular Flow
Income = Output = Expenditure. This identity explains why all three methods of measuring national income yield the same result.
GNP
GDP + NFIA (Net Factor Income from Abroad)
NNP
GNP − Depreciation
NDP
GDP − Depreciation
NNP at Factor Cost
NNP at MP − Indirect Taxes + Subsidies (= National Income)
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Ecology and Ecosystems — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Ecosystem
is a functional unit comprising biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components interacting through energy flow and nutrient cycling—it can be as small as a pond or as large as a biome.
Producers (autotrophs)
form the base of every ecosystem by converting solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis; without them, no ecosystem can sustain life.
Consumers are classified by trophic levels
primary consumers (herbivores) eat producers; secondary consumers (carnivores) eat herbivores; tertiary consumers eat other carnivores; decomposers break down dead matter.
Energy flow is unidirectional and follows the 10% rule
only about 10% of energy transfers from one trophic level to the next; the rest is lost as heat through respiration.
Nutrient cycling is cyclic
, unlike energy flow—elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are continuously recycled through biogeochemical cycles.
Ecological succession
is the predictable, sequential change in species composition of an ecosystem over time, moving toward a stable climax community.
Limiting factors
(Liebig's Law of Minimum) determine that growth is controlled not by total resources but by the scarcest resource.
Ecological niche
refers to the functional role and position of a species in its ecosystem—no two species can occupy the same niche indefinitely (Competitive Exclusion Principle).
10% Law (Lindeman's Efficiency)
Only 10% of energy passes to next trophic level
GPP vs NPP
NPP = GPP − Respiration (NPP is energy available for consumers)
Pyramid of Energy
Always upright; measured in kcal/m²/year
Pyramid of Biomass
Inverted in aquatic ecosystems (phytoplankton base)
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Physical Geography of the World — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Earth's Interior Structure
Three concentric layers — Crust (5-70 km, silica-rich), Mantle (to 2,900 km depth, mostly solid; only the upper asthenosphere is partly molten), and Core (outer liquid, inner solid iron-nickel). Discontinuities mark boundaries: Mohorovičić (crust-mantle), Gutenberg (mantle-core), Lehmann (outer-inner core).
Plate Tectonics
Earth's lithosphere is divided into 7 major and several minor plates floating on the asthenosphere. Three boundary types: Divergent (plates separate, mid-ocean ridges form), Convergent (plates collide, mountains/trenches form), Transform (plates slide past, earthquakes occur).
Geomorphic Processes
Endogenic forces (originating within Earth — volcanism, earthquakes, folding, faulting) create landforms; Exogenic forces (external — weathering, erosion, deposition) modify them. These work simultaneously in opposing directions.
Atmospheric Composition
Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%), Carbon dioxide (0.04%). The atmosphere has five layers: Troposphere (weather), Stratosphere (ozone), Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and Exosphere.
Heat Budget and Circulation
Earth receives and loses equal amounts of energy (radiative equilibrium). Unequal heating creates pressure differences, driving global wind systems — trade winds, westerlies, polar easterlies.
Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction
Oceans store and transport heat. Phenomena like El Niño (warming of eastern Pacific) and La Niña (cooling) significantly affect global weather patterns.
Soil Formation Factors
CLORPT — Climate, Organisms, Relief, Parent material, and Time. These five factors determine soil characteristics at any location.
Biomes Distribution
Climate (temperature and precipitation) is the primary determinant of biome distribution; latitude and altitude create analogous patterns.
Continental Drift Evidence
Jigsaw fit of continents, fossil distribution (Mesosaurus), rock formations, palaeoclimate evidence
Richter Scale
Logarithmic; each whole number = 10× amplitude increase, 31.6× energy increase
Troposphere Temperature Lapse Rate
6.5°C per 1,000 metres altitude
Coriolis Effect
Deflects winds right in Northern Hemisphere, left in Southern Hemisphere
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Ancient India — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC)
was urban, proto-literate, and trade-oriented. Town planning (grid streets, drainage), standardised weights, and absence of monumental temples or palaces distinguish it from contemporary Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Vedic Period
(c. 1500–600 BCE) is divided into Early/Rig Vedic (pastoral, tribal, Sapta-Sindhu region) and Later Vedic (settled agriculture, rise of kingdoms, eastern Gangetic expansion, varna consolidation).
Mahajanapadas
(c. 600–321 BCE) mark the shift to territorial states. Sixteen major janapadas; Magadha's rise due to iron ore, elephants, fertile land, and strategic location.
Heterodox Movements
Buddhism (Gautama Buddha, 563–483 BCE) and Jainism (Mahavira, 540–468 BCE) emerged as reactions to Vedic ritualism and Brahmanical orthodoxy; both rejected Vedic authority, promoted ahimsa.
Mauryan Empire
(321–185 BCE) — First subcontinental empire; centralised bureaucracy described in Arthashastra; Ashoka's Dhamma promoted moral governance, inscriptions are primary sources.
Post-Mauryan Developments
Indo-Greeks introduced coinage with ruler portraits; Shakas, Kushanas (Kanishka) patronised Gandhara and Mathura art schools; Satavahanas controlled Deccan trade.
Gupta Empire
(c. 319–550 CE) — "Golden Age" of Sanskrit literature, Nalanda, metallurgy (Iron Pillar), decimal system. Decentralised administration compared to Mauryas; land grants (agrahara) began feudal trends.
Post-Gupta Period
Regional powers (Pallavas, Chalukyas, Harsha) continued classical traditions; temple architecture (Dravida vs Nagara styles) crystallised.
IVC Sites
Harappa (granary, workmen's quarters); Mohenjo-daro (Great Bath, Great Granary); Lothal (dockyard, bead factory); Kalibangan (fire altars, ploughed field); Dholavira (water reservoirs, signboard).
Vedic Texts
Rig Veda — oldest, 1028 hymns; Sama Veda — music; Yajur Veda — rituals; Atharva Veda — magic/medicine. Brahmanas (ritual prose), Aranyakas (forest texts), Upanishads (philosophy).
Mahajanapada Features
16 states (Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vajji, etc.); Vajji was a gana-sangha (republic); Magadha capitals — Rajagriha, Pataliputra.
Mauryan Administration
King → Mantriparishad → Amatyas; provinces (Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri); Megasthenes' Indica describes 7-fold caste system, six committees of Pataliputra.
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Making of the Constitution — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
Proposed the framework for the Constituent Assembly; rejected the demand for a separate Pakistan initially but provided for grouping of provinces.
Composition of Constituent Assembly
Initially 389 members (292 from British provinces, 93 from princely states, 4 from Chief Commissioners' provinces). After partition, reduced to 299 members.
Indirect Election
Members were elected by provincial legislative assemblies, not by universal adult franchise. Election method used single transferable vote with proportional representation.
Sovereign Body
From August 15, 1947, the Assembly became a fully sovereign body, free from the Cabinet Mission's limitations.
Dual Function
The Assembly served both as a constitution-making body and as the provisional Parliament of India until 1952.
Objective Resolution
Moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on December 13, 1946; adopted on January 22, 1947. It laid down the philosophy and guiding principles that later became the Preamble.
Borrowed Constitution
Often called a "bag of borrowings" but the framers adapted foreign provisions to Indian conditions rather than copying blindly.
Lengthiest Constitution
Originally had 395 Articles, 22 Parts, and 8 Schedules — making it the longest written constitution in the world.
First meeting
December 9, 1946
Temporary Chairman
Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha
Permanent Chairman
Dr. Rajendra Prasad (elected December 11, 1946)
Chairman of Drafting Committee
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
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Physics — General Awareness — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Newton's Laws of Motion
First law (inertia)—objects resist change in motion; Second law—Force = mass × acceleration; Third law—every action has an equal and opposite reaction. These explain rocket propulsion, seatbelt necessity, and recoil of guns.
Gravitation and Orbits
Objects in orbit are in continuous free fall around Earth. Geostationary satellites (36,000 km altitude) match Earth's rotation, appearing stationary—used for communication and weather monitoring.
Pressure and Fluids
Pressure increases with depth (explains dam design, ear pain while diving). Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude (why water boils at lower temperatures at high altitudes).
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Conduction (through solids, metal spoons getting hot), convection (fluids, sea breezes), radiation (no medium needed, solar energy reaching Earth). Vacuum flasks minimise all three.
Wave Nature of Light and Sound
Light is electromagnetic (travels through vacuum), sound is mechanical (needs medium). Reflection, refraction, diffraction explain mirrors, lenses, rainbows, and why we hear sounds around corners.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio waves → Microwaves → Infrared → Visible light → Ultraviolet → X-rays → Gamma rays. Wavelength decreases and energy increases left to right. Each has specific applications.
Electric Current and Circuits
Current = charge flow per second. Conductors allow easy flow, insulators resist it. Series circuits share current; parallel circuits share voltage. Household wiring uses parallel connections.
Nuclear Reactions
Fission (heavy nucleus splits, used in reactors and atomic bombs) vs Fusion (light nuclei combine, powers the Sun, basis of hydrogen bombs). Fusion releases more energy but is harder to control.
Speed of light
Formula/Fact: 3 × 10⁸ m/s in vacuum · Application: Basis for light-year measurement
Speed of sound
Formula/Fact: ~343 m/s in air at 20°C (~331 m/s at 0°C) · Application: Thunder heard after lightning
Ohm's Law
Formula/Fact: V = I × R (Voltage = Current × Resistance) · Application: Electrical circuit design
Power
Formula/Fact: P = V × I (Watts = Volts × Amperes) · Application: Appliance ratings
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International Affairs — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Bilateralism vs Multilateralism
Bilateral relations involve two nations (India-US 2+2 dialogue); multilateral frameworks involve three or more (BRICS, G20, UN). India pursues "multi-alignment"—strategic partnerships with multiple powers without formal alliances.
India's Foreign Policy Pillars
Neighbourhood First (priority to SAARC nations), Act East Policy (ASEAN and East Asia), Link West (Gulf and West Asia), Africa outreach, and strategic autonomy in great-power relations.
United Nations Structure
Six principal organs—General Assembly (UNGA), Security Council (UNSC), ECOSOC, ICJ, Secretariat, Trusteeship Council (inactive). UNSC has 5 permanent members (P5: USA, UK, France, Russia, China) with veto power and 10 non-permanent members elected for 2-year terms.
Voting in UN Bodies
UNGA follows one-nation-one-vote with simple majority (important questions need two-thirds). UNSC substantive resolutions require 9 affirmative votes including concurrence of all P5 (no veto).
Regional Groupings India Belongs To
SAARC, BIMSTEC, SCO, BRICS, G20, IORA, EAS, ASEAN dialogue partner, Quad (informal).
Treaty vs Agreement vs MoU
Treaty is legally binding under international law (requires parliamentary ratification in many countries). MoUs are typically statements of intent, less binding. Agreements occupy middle ground depending on language.
Most Favoured Nation (MFN)
WTO principle that trade advantages given to one member must be extended to all. India suspended MFN status to Pakistan in 2019.
Rules-Based International Order
Framework where international relations are governed by agreed rules, treaties, and institutions rather than power alone—frequently referenced in Indo-Pacific discourse.
United Nations
Headquarters: New York · Key Fact: 193 member states; India is founding member
ICJ
Headquarters: The Hague, Netherlands · Key Fact: 15 judges, 9-year terms; India has had four judges (B.N. Rau, Nagendra Singh, R.S. Pathak, Dalveer Bhandari)
WTO
Headquarters: Geneva · Key Fact: 164 members; consensus-based decision making
IMF
Headquarters: Washington DC · Key Fact: 190 members; SDR basket includes USD, EUR, CNY, JPY, GBP
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Indian Economy and Planning — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Planning in India began in 1951
with the First Five Year Plan, inspired by the Soviet model but adapted to India's mixed economy framework combining public sector dominance with private enterprise.
Planning Commission (1950-2014)
was an extra-constitutional body that formulated Five Year Plans; it was chaired by the Prime Minister with a Deputy Chairman handling day-to-day functions.
NITI Aayog (2015-present)
replaced the Planning Commission with a focus on cooperative federalism, bottom-up planning, and monitoring rather than resource allocation — states are now equal partners, not recipients of central directives.
Sectoral shift
At Independence, agriculture contributed ~55% of GDP; today it contributes ~15-18% but still employs ~42-45% of the workforce — this mismatch is critical for understanding disguised unemployment and the need for structural transformation.
Services sector
now dominates GDP (~55%) followed by industry (~25-30%) and agriculture (~15-18%), making India's growth pattern unique compared to the manufacturing-led growth of East Asian economies.
Green Revolution (1960s-70s)
transformed India from a food-deficit nation to self-sufficient in foodgrains through HYV seeds, irrigation, fertilizers, and institutional credit — primarily benefiting wheat in Punjab, Haryana, and western UP.
White Revolution (Operation Flood, 1970-1996)
made India the world's largest milk producer through cooperative dairy farming, spearheaded by Verghese Kurien and the Amul model in Gujarat.
Indicative planning
post-1991 reforms replaced directive planning — the state shifted from controller to facilitator of economic activity.
First Five Year Plan
Period: 1951-56 · Architect/Key Figure: Harrod-Domar model · Focus/Achievement: Agriculture, irrigation (Bhakra-Nangal)
Second Five Year Plan
Period: 1956-61 · Architect/Key Figure: Mahalanobis Model · Focus/Achievement: Heavy industries, public sector (Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela steel plants)
Fourth Five Year Plan
Period: 1969-74 · Architect/Key Figure: — · Focus/Achievement: "Growth with Stability"
Fifth Five Year Plan
Period: 1974-79 · Architect/Key Figure: D.P. Dhar · Focus/Achievement: Poverty removal (Garibi Hatao)
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Biodiversity and Conservation — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Three levels of biodiversity
Genetic diversity (within species), species diversity (between species), and ecosystem diversity (variety of habitats). All three levels require conservation attention.
Biodiversity hotspots
Regions with at least 1,500 endemic vascular plants and having lost 70% or more of original habitat. India has 4 hotspots: Western Ghats, Himalayas, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland (Nicobar Islands).
In-situ conservation
Protecting species in their natural habitat through protected areas. Preferred method as it maintains evolutionary processes and ecosystem functions.
Ex-situ conservation
Preserving species outside natural habitat—zoos, botanical gardens, gene banks, seed vaults. Acts as insurance against extinction but cannot maintain natural behaviour or evolution.
Protected Area hierarchy in India
National Parks (strictest) → Wildlife Sanctuaries → Conservation Reserves → Community Reserves. Each has different restrictions on human activities.
Biosphere Reserves
Based on UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Contain core (no human activity), buffer (limited activity), and transition zones (sustainable development allowed).
Project Tiger (1973)
and Project Elephant (1992): Flagship species conservation programmes. Tiger reserves and elephant reserves are notified under these projects, often overlapping with existing protected areas.
Endemism
Species found exclusively in a specific geographic area. High endemism indicates evolutionary isolation and demands priority conservation.
Total Protected Area coverage
~5.26% of India's geographic area
National Parks
106 (no human habitation, no grazing)
Wildlife Sanctuaries
567 (limited human activities permitted)
Ramsar Wetlands
82 (as of 2024)
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Physical Geography of India — General Studies Paper I · 11 cards
India spans 8°4'N to 37°6'N latitude and 68°7'E to 97°25'E longitude
, covering approximately 3.28 million km², making it the seventh-largest country by area.
The Himalayas are young fold mountains
(Tertiary origin, ~50 million years ago) formed by collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates, while the Peninsular Plateau is one of the oldest landmasses (Gondwanaland fragment).
The Indian monsoon is driven by differential heating of land and sea
, with the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifting northward in summer, drawing moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean.
Soil distribution follows a regional pattern
alluvial in Indo-Gangetic plains, black (regur) in Deccan trap, red and laterite in peninsular uplands, and desert soils in Rajasthan.
Natural vegetation zones correlate with rainfall and temperature
tropical rainforests (>200 cm rainfall), deciduous forests (70-200 cm), thorn forests (<70 cm), and montane forests (altitude-based).
India is one of 17 megadiverse countries
, containing 4 biodiversity hotspots: Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland (Nicobar Islands).
The Himalayas
Three parallel ranges: Greater/Himadri (highest, perpetual snow), Lesser/Himachal (Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar), Shiwaliks (youngest, most fragile)
Northern Plains
Formed by alluvial deposits; subdivided into Bhabar (pebble zone), Terai (marshy), Bhangar (older alluvium), Khadar (newer alluvium, flood-prone)
Peninsular Plateau
Two divisions: Central Highlands (north of Narmada) and Deccan Plateau (south of Narmada); flanked by Western Ghats (higher, continuous) and Eastern Ghats (lower, discontinuous)
Coastal Plains
Western coast (narrow, submerged—Konkan, Malabar); Eastern coast (broader, emergent—Northern Circars, Coromandel)
Islands
Andaman & Nicobar (tectonic, volcanic origin—Barren Island is India's only active volcano); Lakshadweep (coral origin)
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History of India and Indian National Movement — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Periodisation matters
Ancient India (up to 1206 CE) → Medieval India (1206-1757 CE) → Modern India (1757-1947 CE). These boundaries are contested but serve exam purposes.
Continuity and change
Indian history shows remarkable continuity in culture and religion despite political discontinuities—Bhakti-Sufi synthesis, temple architecture evolution, administrative practices borrowed across dynasties.
Colonial exploitation framework
British rule fundamentally restructured India's economy (de-industrialisation, drain of wealth), society (new education, legal systems), and polity (centralised administration). This framework underlies much of Modern India.
Phases of nationalism
The freedom movement evolved from moderate constitutionalism (1885-1905) → extremist nationalism and revolutionary activity (1905-1919) → Gandhian mass mobilisation (1919-1947). Each phase had distinct methods, leadership, and social bases.
Regional diversity
National movements had strong regional flavours—Swadeshi in Bengal, peasant movements in Champaran and Bardoli, tribal revolts in Chotanagpur, princely state movements. UPSC tests this regional specificity.
Role of social reform
Political awakening was preceded and accompanied by socio-religious reform movements that challenged orthodoxy and prepared ground for modern consciousness.
Economic nationalism
Critique of colonial economic policies (Dadabhai Naoroji's "Drain Theory") was central to nationalist ideology and remains exam-relevant.
Constitutional development
Stages from Regulating Act (1773) through Government of India Acts to the Constituent Assembly show gradual transfer of power and are tested both in History and Polity.
Indus Valley Civilisation
2600-1900 BCE; Harappa, Mohenjo-daro; urban planning, Great Bath, undeciphered script
Vedic Period
Early (1500-1000 BCE): Rigveda, pastoral society; Later (1000-600 BCE): other Vedas, settled agriculture
Mauryan Empire
321-185 BCE; Chandragupta, Bindusara, Ashoka; Arthashastra; Dhamma policy
Gupta Period
320-550 CE; "Golden Age"; Aryabhata, Kalidasa; Nalanda; temple architecture beginnings
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Medieval India — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Early Medieval Period (750–1200 CE)
Characterised by the Tripartite Struggle among Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas for control of Kannauj; simultaneously, Rajput kingdoms emerged in north and Cholas dominated the south.
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
Five dynasties ruled successively—Slave/Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi. Introduced iqta system, market reforms (Alauddin Khalji), and token currency experiment (Muhammad bin Tughlaq).
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Founded by Harihara and Bukka with guidance from sage Vidyaranya; served as a bulwark against Bahmani Sultanate; known for Hampi's architecture and nayankara system.
Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1518)
Founded by Alauddin Bahman Shah; later fragmented into five Deccan Sultanates—Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar, and Bidar.
Mughal Empire (1526–1707 peak)
Babur's victory at Panipat (1526) established the dynasty; reached zenith under Akbar (administrative reforms, Din-i-Ilahi, Mansabdari) and Shah Jahan (architectural glory); declined post-Aurangzeb.
Bhakti Movement
Emphasised personal devotion over ritualism; two streams—Saguna (Ramanuja, Vallabhacharya) and Nirguna (Kabir, Guru Nanak). Regional saints like Tukaram (Maharashtra), Chaitanya (Bengal), and Mirabai spread devotional poetry in vernacular.
Sufi Movement
Islamic mysticism stressing love of God; organised into silsilas—Chishti (most influential in India: Moinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya), Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and Naqshbandi.
Indo-Islamic Architecture
Fusion of Indian trabeate and Islamic arcuate styles; marked by true arches, domes, minarets, geometric ornamentation, and use of calligraphy.
Chola Dynasty
Founded by Vijayalaya (850 CE); peak under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I; maritime expeditions to Southeast Asia; Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjavur, 1010 CE); local self-government through village assemblies (sabha, ur, nagaram).
Rashtrakutas
Capital: Manyakheta; Kailasa Temple (Ellora) built by Krishna I; patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature.
Rajput Kingdoms
Included Pratiharas, Chauhans, Chalukyas of Gujarat, Paramaras; Prithviraj III defeated at Second Battle of Tarain (1192).
Delhi Sultanate Dynasties
Mamluk: Qutbuddin Aibak (Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Qutb Minar begun), Iltutmish (completed Qutb Minar), Razia Sultan, Balban. Khalji: Alauddin Khalji (market control, Siri Fort, Alai Darwaza). Tughlaq: Muhammad bin Tughlaq (capital shift to Daulatabad, token currency), Firoz Shah Tughlaq (canals, towns).
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Chemistry — General Awareness — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Atom structure
Atoms consist of a nucleus (protons + neutrons) surrounded by electrons in shells. Atomic number = number of protons; mass number = protons + neutrons. Isotopes have same atomic number but different mass numbers (e.g., Carbon-12, Carbon-14).
Periodic Table organisation
Elements arranged by increasing atomic number. Rows (periods) indicate number of electron shells; columns (groups) indicate similar chemical properties due to same valence electrons. Metals on left, non-metals on right, metalloids along the staircase line.
Chemical bonding
Ionic bonds form when electrons transfer between atoms (NaCl); covalent bonds form when electrons are shared (H₂O). Metallic bonding explains conductivity—electrons move freely through a "sea" of delocalised electrons.
Acids and Bases
Acids release H⁺ ions in water (sour taste, turn litmus red); bases release OH⁻ ions (bitter taste, soapy feel, turn litmus blue). pH scale runs 0–14: below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic, 7 is neutral.
Chemical reactions
Combination (A + B → AB), decomposition (AB → A + B), displacement (A + BC → AC + B), redox (electron transfer). Oxidation = loss of electrons; reduction = gain of electrons.
Catalysts
Substances that speed up reactions without being consumed. Enzymes are biological catalysts. Catalytic converters in vehicles use platinum/palladium to reduce harmful emissions.
Everyday chemistry applications
Understanding why iron rusts (oxidation), how detergents work (emulsification), why pressure cookers cook faster (increased boiling point), and how batteries store energy (electrochemical reactions).
Water formula
H₂O — universal solvent; boils at 100°C, freezes at 0°C at 1 atm
pH of blood
7.35–7.45 (slightly basic)
Common acids
HCl (stomach acid), H₂SO₄ (battery acid), CH₃COOH (vinegar)
Common bases
NaOH (caustic soda), Ca(OH)₂ (slaked lime), NaHCO₃ (baking soda)
Neutralisation
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
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Economic News — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
GDP and Growth Metrics
India uses GVA (Gross Value Added) at basic prices with base year 2011-12. Real GDP removes inflation effect; nominal GDP includes it. NSO (National Statistical Office) releases advance estimates, provisional estimates, and revised estimates in sequence.
Inflation Measurement
CPI (Consumer Price Index) is the headline inflation measure for monetary policy. WPI (Wholesale Price Index) reflects producer-level prices. RBI targets CPI inflation at 4% with a tolerance band of ±2%.
Fiscal Deficit vs Revenue Deficit
Fiscal deficit = Total expenditure − Total receipts excluding borrowings. Revenue deficit = Revenue expenditure − Revenue receipts. Primary deficit = Fiscal deficit − Interest payments.
Current Account and BoP
Current Account Deficit (CAD) reflects trade balance plus invisibles. A sustainable CAD for India is considered around 2-2.5% of GDP. Foreign exchange reserves provide import cover measured in months.
Monetary Policy Framework
RBI's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meets bi-monthly. Repo rate is the policy rate; the SDF rate (the floor, which replaced the reverse repo in April 2022) and the MSF rate (the ceiling, equal to the bank rate) form the policy corridor. CRR and SLR are reserve requirements.
Ease of Doing Business
World Bank discontinued its Doing Business Report (2021). B-READY (Business Ready) is the successor framework focusing on regulatory quality and public services.
Purchasing Power Parity
PPP adjusts for price differences across countries. India's GDP rank differs significantly between nominal (5th globally) and PPP terms (3rd globally).
RBI
Monetary Policy Report, Financial Stability Report, Annual Report, State Finances Study
NITI Aayog
SDG India Index, Multidimensional Poverty Index, Health Index, Export Preparedness Index
IMF
World Economic Outlook (WEO), Global Financial Stability Report, Article IV Consultations
World Bank
Global Economic Prospects, World Development Report, India Development Update
WTO
World Trade Report, Trade Policy Review
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Public Finance and Fiscal Policy — General Studies Paper I · 10 cards
Union Budget (Annual Financial Statement)
Presented under Article 112, it comprises Revenue Budget (revenue receipts and expenditure) and Capital Budget (capital receipts and expenditure). A balanced budget is rare; India typically runs deficits.
Direct vs Indirect Taxes
Direct taxes (income tax, corporate tax) are levied on income/wealth and cannot be shifted; indirect taxes (GST, customs) are on goods/services and can be shifted to consumers. Post-GST, indirect tax structure is simplified into CGST, SGST, IGST, and compensation cess.
GST (Goods and Services Tax)
A destination-based, multi-stage, comprehensive indirect tax introduced via the 101st Constitutional Amendment (2016). GST Council (Article 279A) decides rates and rules—decisions historically by consensus, though voting provision exists.
FRBM Act (2003)
Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act mandates fiscal discipline. Targets: eliminate revenue deficit, reduce fiscal deficit to 3% of GDP. Amended multiple times; currently guided by NK Singh Committee (2017) recommendations targeting 2.5% fiscal deficit by FY2023 (later relaxed due to COVID).
Deficit Financing
Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure − Revenue Receipts. Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure − Total Receipts excluding borrowings. Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit − Interest Payments. Effective Revenue Deficit = Revenue Deficit − Grants for capital asset creation.
Finance Commission
Constitutional body under Article 280, constituted every five years to recommend distribution of tax revenues between Centre and States (vertical devolution) and among States (horizontal devolution). 15th FC (Chairman: NK Singh) recommended 41% devolution to states.
Consolidated Fund, Public Account, Contingency Fund
All government revenues go into Consolidated Fund (Article 266); withdrawals need Parliamentary approval. Public Account holds money held in trust (PF, small savings). Contingency Fund (Article 267) is for unforeseen expenditure—President can authorize, Parliament ratifies later.
Revenue Deficit
Government is dissaving; borrowing for consumption
Fiscal Deficit
Total borrowing requirement for the year
Primary Deficit
Fiscal health excluding legacy debt burden
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Flora, Fauna and IUCN Status — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
IUCN Red List
is the world's most comprehensive inventory of species' global conservation status, maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature headquartered in Gland, Switzerland.
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
regulates international trade in wildlife specimens through three appendices based on the degree of protection needed—it does not ban trade but regulates it.
Endemic species
are those found exclusively in a particular geographic region; India's Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are biodiversity hotspots with high endemism.
Flagship species
(tiger, elephant) generate public support; keystone species (fig trees, sea otters) have disproportionate ecological impact; indicator species (lichens, amphibians) reflect ecosystem health.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
provides the domestic legal framework with four schedules since the 2022 amendment—Schedule I offers the highest protection; the old Schedule V ("vermin") was removed.
Recovery programs
like Project Tiger (1973), Project Elephant (1992), and species-specific programs for Gangetic dolphin, snow leopard, and Great Indian Bustard represent India's conservation approach.
Ex-situ conservation
(zoos, gene banks) complements in-situ conservation (protected areas) for critically endangered species where wild populations are too small.
Extinct
Abbreviation: EX · Meaning: No known individuals remaining
Extinct in Wild
Abbreviation: EW · Meaning: Survives only in captivity
Critically Endangered
Abbreviation: CR · Meaning: Extremely high risk of extinction
Endangered
Abbreviation: EN · Meaning: Very high risk of extinction
Vulnerable
Abbreviation: VU · Meaning: High risk of extinction
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Economic Geography of India — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Localization of industries
depends on raw materials, power, labour, market, transport, capital, and government policy—no single factor works in isolation.
Cropping patterns
are determined by climate, soil, water availability, and market demand; India has three main seasons: Kharif (monsoon), Rabi (winter), and Zaid (summer).
Green Revolution
(1960s onwards) increased food grain production dramatically but created regional imbalances (Punjab, Haryana benefited most) and environmental concerns (groundwater depletion, soil degradation).
India's mineral belt
stretches across the Chotanagpur plateau region (Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, parts of West Bengal)—this is the country's mineral heartland.
Energy transition
is underway: India remains coal-dependent (over 55% of electricity) but is rapidly expanding solar and wind capacity under renewable energy targets.
Golden Quadrilateral and Dedicated Freight Corridors
represent the backbone of India's road and rail transport strategy for economic integration.
India's trade
has shifted from primary products to manufactured goods and services; the US, China, UAE, and EU are major partners.
Iron Ore
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Jharkhand
Coal
Jharkhand (Jharia), Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh
Bauxite
Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra
Manganese
Odisha, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh
Mica
Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
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Indian and World Geography — Physical, Social, Economic — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Earth's interior structure
Crust (5–70 km), Mantle (2900 km), Outer Core (liquid, 2200 km), Inner Core (solid, 1200 km radius). Discontinuities: Moho (crust-mantle), Gutenberg (mantle-core), Lehmann (outer-inner core).
Plate tectonics
Lithospheric plates float on asthenosphere. Convergent boundaries create fold mountains (Himalayas) and trenches; divergent boundaries form mid-ocean ridges; transform boundaries cause earthquakes (San Andreas Fault).
Atmospheric layers
Troposphere (weather, temperature decreases with altitude) → Stratosphere (ozone layer, temperature increases) → Mesosphere → Thermosphere → Exosphere.
Pressure belts and winds
Equatorial Low → Subtropical High → Subpolar Low → Polar High. Trade winds, Westerlies, Polar Easterlies follow from these. Coriolis effect deflects winds right in Northern Hemisphere, left in Southern.
Indian Monsoon mechanism
Differential heating of land and sea; ITCZ shift; Somali Jet and Tibetan Plateau's role; El Niño weakens monsoon, La Niña strengthens it.
Physiographic divisions of India
Northern Mountains, Indo-Gangetic Plain, Peninsular Plateau, Coastal Plains, Islands. Each has distinct geological history and resource profile.
Major soil types in India
Alluvial (most fertile, Gangetic plains), Black/Regur (cotton, Deccan), Red (iron-rich, Peninsular), Laterite (leached, heavy rainfall areas), Arid (saline, Rajasthan), Forest/Mountain soils.
Drainage patterns
Himalayan rivers are perennial (snow-fed); Peninsular rivers are seasonal (rain-fed). Western Ghats form the water divide; most Peninsular rivers flow eastward.
Highest points
K2 (8611m, India's highest); Kanchenjunga (8586m, highest in India proper)
Major passes
Khyber, Bolan (Pakistan); Shipki La, Nathu La, Bomdi La, Zoji La, Rohtang
Longest rivers
World: Nile (6650 km), Amazon, Yangtze. India: Ganga (2525 km), Godavari (1465 km)
Rainfall extremes
Mawsynram (highest average), Jaisalmer (lowest ~20 cm)
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Advent of Europeans and British Conquest — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Portuguese primacy, then decline
Vasco da Gama (1498) opened the Cape route; Portuguese dominated 16th-century coastal trade but lost ground after 1600 due to religious intolerance, weak naval power, and competition from the Dutch and English.
Trading companies as state actors
European powers operated through chartered joint-stock companies—Estado da Índia (Portugal; a Crown-run state, not a company), VOC (Dutch), EIC (English), Compagnie des Indes (French)—each combining commerce with armed force.
From factory to fortress to territory
The EIC's trajectory—Surat factory (1613) → Fort St George/Madras (1639) → Fort William/Calcutta (1690) → Diwani of Bengal (1765)—shows a deliberate shift from trade to revenue and political control.
Carnatic Wars as Anglo-French proxy conflicts
The three Carnatic Wars (1746–63) were fought largely with Indian allies; British victory at Wandiwash (1760) ended French territorial ambitions.
Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse
Wellesley's Subsidiary Alliance system (post-1798) stripped Indian rulers of military autonomy; Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse (1848–56) annexed states without recognised heirs—both critical to territorial consolidation.
Strategic geography
Control of Bengal gave the EIC revenues; control of Mysore eliminated a hostile southern power; control of the Marathas removed the last pan-Indian rival; annexation of Punjab secured the north-west frontier.
Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut
Date/Period: 1498 · Significance: First direct sea route from Europe
Portuguese capture Goa
Date/Period: 1510 · Significance: Albuquerque establishes colonial capital
Dutch East India Company (VOC) formed
Date/Period: 1602 · Significance: Focuses on spice islands; limited Indian presence
English EIC founded
Date/Period: 1600 · Significance: Charter from Elizabeth I
French Compagnie des Indes
Date/Period: 1664 · Significance: Late entrant; bases at Pondicherry, Chandernagore
Battle of Plassey
Date/Period: 23 June 1757 · Significance: Clive defeats Siraj-ud-Daulah; EIC becomes power-broker in Bengal
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Union Executive — General Studies Paper I · 11 cards
Parliamentary Executive Model
India follows the Westminster model where the real executive (Council of Ministers) is responsible to the legislature, while the President is the nominal head who acts on ministerial advice (Article 74).
Article 74 – Binding Advice
The 42nd and 44th Amendments made it mandatory for the President to act on the Council of Ministers' advice. The President can ask for reconsideration once, but must accept the reconsidered advice.
President's Discretionary Situations
Though largely bound by advice, the President exercises genuine discretion when (a) no party has a clear majority, (b) the Council of Ministers loses majority, or (c) a Prime Minister dies suddenly without a clear successor.
Collective Responsibility (Article 75(3))
The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha—if it loses confidence, the entire ministry must resign, not just one minister.
Individual Responsibility
Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President (Article 75(2)), meaning the PM can recommend dismissal of any minister.
Attorney General's Unique Position
The AG is not a member of the Cabinet, not barred from private practice (with restrictions), and holds office during the President's pleasure—distinct from a government servant.
Vice-President's Dual Role
Acts as ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha and steps in as Acting President when the office falls vacant (for a maximum of 6 months).
President
Article: 52–62 · Eligibility: Citizen, 35+ years, qualified for Lok Sabha membership · Term: 5 years · Removal: Impeachment (Art. 61) by 2/3 majority of total membership of each House
Vice-President
Article: 63–71 · Eligibility: Citizen, 35+ years, qualified for Rajya Sabha membership · Term: 5 years · Removal: Resolution by Rajya Sabha (effective majority) + Lok Sabha agreement
Prime Minister
Article: 74–75 · Eligibility: Must be MP (or become one within 6 months) · Term: No fixed term; holds office while enjoying Lok Sabha confidence · Removal: Loses Lok Sabha confidence or resigns
Attorney General
Article: 76 · Eligibility: Qualified to be Supreme Court judge · Term: President's pleasure · Removal: No formal procedure; serves at pleasure
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Biology — Human Body and Health — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Cell as the basic unit
Human body comprises approximately 37 trillion cells; each cell contains nucleus (with DNA), mitochondria (energy production), ribosomes (protein synthesis), and cell membrane (selective permeability).
Organ systems work in coordination
Digestive system breaks down food, circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen, respiratory system exchanges gases, excretory system removes wastes, nervous system coordinates responses, endocrine system regulates through hormones.
Genes carry hereditary information
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contains genes; genes code for proteins; chromosomes are DNA packages (humans have 46 chromosomes — 23 pairs). Mutations cause genetic disorders.
Immunity operates at multiple levels
Innate immunity (skin, mucus, white blood cells) provides immediate defence; adaptive immunity (antibodies, memory cells) provides specific, long-lasting protection.
Communicable vs non-communicable diseases
Communicable diseases spread through pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites); non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabetes, cancer, heart disease arise from lifestyle, genetics, or environmental factors and are not transmissible.
Vaccines train the immune system
Vaccines introduce weakened/inactivated pathogens or their components to stimulate antibody production without causing disease, creating immunological memory.
Nutrition involves macro and micronutrients
Macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) provide energy; micronutrients (vitamins, minerals) regulate body functions. Deficiencies cause specific disorders.
Circulatory
Key Organs: Heart, blood vessels · Primary Function: Transport of oxygen, nutrients, hormones
Respiratory
Key Organs: Lungs, trachea, diaphragm · Primary Function: Gas exchange (O₂ in, CO₂ out)
Digestive
Key Organs: Stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas · Primary Function: Breakdown and absorption of food
Nervous
Key Organs: Brain, spinal cord, nerves · Primary Function: Control and coordination
Endocrine
Key Organs: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas · Primary Function: Hormone secretion and regulation
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Science and Technology News — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
ISRO's current priorities
Gaganyaan (human spaceflight programme), Chandrayaan-3 (successful lunar south pole landing, August 2023), Aditya-L1 (India's first solar observatory at L1 Lagrange point), and NISAR (NASA-ISRO SAR satellite for Earth observation).
Launch vehicle evolution
PSLV remains the workhorse for polar/sun-synchronous orbits; GSLV Mk III (LVM3) handles heavier payloads and human missions; SSLV (Small Satellite Launch Vehicle) targets on-demand small satellite launches.
Defence indigenisation under Atmanirbhar Bharat
Positive indigenisation lists restrict imports of specified defence items; DPSUs and private sector encouraged; examples include Tejas Mk1A, INS Vikrant (indigenous aircraft carrier), and Pralay missile.
Missile developments
Agni series (strategic ballistic), BrahMos (supersonic cruise, now with extended 800 km range), Agni-5 with MIRV capability (Mission Divyastra, 2024), and anti-satellite (ASAT) capability demonstrated in Mission Shakti (2019).
Biotechnology and health tech
mRNA vaccine technology (India's first: GEMCOVAC), CAR-T cell therapy, genome sequencing initiatives, and antimicrobial resistance surveillance gain exam relevance.
IT and emerging tech policy
Digital India, National Quantum Mission (2023-2031, ₹6000 crore), Semiconductor Mission, draft Digital Personal Data Protection Act implementation, and National Strategy on AI.
Indigenous technology push
Kavach (automatic train protection system), Vande Bharat trains, 5G stack development, and indigenous navigation system NavIC.
Chandrayaan-3
Landed at Shiv Shakti Point near lunar south pole; Vikram lander + Pragyan rover; confirmed presence of sulphur, oxygen on lunar surface
Aditya-L1
Launched September 2023; reached L1 point (1.5 million km from Earth) January 2024; carries 7 payloads including VELC (Visible Emission Line Coronagraph)
Gaganyaan
Target: Indian astronauts (Vyomanauts) to LEO; test flights include TV-D1 (abort demonstration); ISRO collaborating with IAF for crew selection
LVM3
Payload capacity: 4000 kg to GTO, 10000 kg to LEO; powered by S200 solid boosters, L110 liquid stage, C25 cryogenic stage
INS Vikrant
First indigenous aircraft carrier; commissioned 2 September 2022; built at Cochin Shipyard; carries MiG-29K fighters
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Money, Banking and Monetary Policy — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
RBI as Monetary Authority
RBI controls money supply and credit conditions to maintain price stability (primary objective), support growth, and ensure financial stability. It acts as banker to government, banker's bank, and lender of last resort.
Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)
A 6-member statutory body (3 RBI + 3 government nominees) that decides policy rates. Decisions require majority vote; RBI Governor has casting vote in case of tie. Targets CPI inflation at 4% (±2%).
Quantitative vs Qualitative Tools
Quantitative tools (CRR, SLR, repo rate) affect overall money supply uniformly; qualitative tools (margin requirements, moral suasion, selective credit control) target specific sectors.
Transmission Mechanism
Policy rate changes → bank lending rates → investment and consumption → aggregate demand → inflation/growth. Transmission in India remains incomplete due to factors like MCLR rigidity and banking sector stress.
Non-Performing Assets (NPAs)
Loans where principal or interest remains overdue for more than 90 days. High NPAs constrain bank lending capacity and weaken monetary transmission.
Financial Inclusion
Ensuring access to affordable financial services (savings, credit, insurance, pensions) for all sections, especially the unbanked poor. JAM trinity (Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile) is the backbone.
Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF)
The corridor within which overnight money market rates fluctuate—the MSF rate is the ceiling and the SDF rate (earlier the reverse repo rate) is the floor, with the repo rate at the centre.
Repo Rate
Current Rate (approx.): 6.50% · Function: Rate at which RBI lends to banks (short-term)
Standing Deposit Facility (SDF)
Current Rate (approx.): 6.25% · Function: Floor rate; replaced reverse repo as primary absorption tool
Marginal Standing Facility (MSF)
Current Rate (approx.): 6.75% · Function: Emergency borrowing window; 0.25% above repo
Bank Rate
Current Rate (approx.): 6.75% · Function: Long-term lending rate; pegged to MSF
CRR
Current Rate (approx.): 4.5% · Function: Cash reserves banks keep with RBI; no interest paid
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Climate Change — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Greenhouse Effect
Natural process where atmospheric gases (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, water vapour) trap outgoing infrared radiation, keeping Earth ~33°C warmer than it would otherwise be. Human activities have enhanced this effect.
Global Warming vs Climate Change
Global warming refers specifically to rising average temperatures; climate change encompasses broader impacts—altered precipitation, sea-level rise, extreme weather events.
Ocean Acidification
Oceans absorb ~25% of anthropogenic CO₂, forming carbonic acid. pH has dropped from 8.2 to ~8.1 since pre-industrial times (a 30% increase in acidity), threatening coral reefs and shellfish.
Carbon Budget
The total amount of CO₂ that can still be emitted while limiting warming to 1.5°C or 2°C. IPCC estimates the remaining budget for 1.5°C is rapidly depleting.
CBDR-RC Principle
"Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities"—developed nations bear greater historical responsibility and must lead in mitigation and finance.
NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions)
Voluntary national climate action plans submitted under the Paris Agreement, reviewed every five years with a "ratchet mechanism" for increased ambition.
Climate Finance
Developed countries committed to mobilising $100 billion annually (by 2020, extended to 2025) for developing nations' climate action; now being renegotiated toward a New Collective Quantified Goal.
Mitigation vs Adaptation
Mitigation reduces emissions (renewable energy, efficiency); adaptation adjusts to impacts (flood defences, drought-resistant crops). Both are essential.
Pre-industrial CO₂ level
~280 ppm
Current CO₂ level (2024)
~420 ppm
Paris Agreement temperature goal
Limit warming to well below 2°C, pursue 1.5°C
Kyoto Protocol commitment periods
CP1: 2008–2012; CP2: 2013–2020
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Human and Social Geography of India — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Population Distribution
India's population is unevenly spread—Uttar Pradesh alone holds over 16% of the national population. Distribution is influenced by terrain, climate, soil fertility, water availability, and economic opportunities.
Population Density
Calculated as persons per square kilometre. India's average density (2011 Census) is 382 persons/km². Bihar has the highest density among major states (1,106/km²); Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest (17/km²).
Population Growth
India's decadal growth rate declined from 21.5% (1991–2001) to 17.7% (2001–2011). The growth rate reflects the balance between birth rate, death rate, and net migration.
Demographic Transition
India is in the late-expanding stage—declining death rates with slowly declining birth rates. Southern states have fallen below replacement-level fertility (TFR 2.1), while northern states like Bihar and UP lag behind.
Population Composition
Includes age structure (working-age population 15–64 years), sex ratio (females per 1000 males), literacy rate, and rural-urban divide. India's sex ratio improved to 943 (2011) from 933 (2001).
Scheduled Tribes (STs)
Constitute 8.6% of India's population (2011). Concentrated in the "tribal belt" stretching from Gujarat to West Bengal and the northeastern states. Madhya Pradesh has the largest ST population in absolute numbers; Mizoram has the highest proportion.
Urbanisation
The proportion of population living in urban areas rose from 27.8% (2001) to 31.2% (2011). Census towns and statutory towns together define urban India.
Migration
Movement of people across regions, classified as internal (within India) or international; and by duration (permanent, temporary, seasonal). Marriage remains the dominant reason for female migration; employment dominates for males.
Total Population
2011 Census Value: 121.09 crore · Key Detail: 2nd most populous country
Decadal Growth Rate
2011 Census Value: 17.7% · Key Detail: Lowest since independence
Sex Ratio (overall)
2011 Census Value: 943 · Key Detail: Kerala highest (1,084); Haryana lowest (879)
Child Sex Ratio (0–6 years)
2011 Census Value: 919 · Key Detail: Declined from 927 (2001)—a concern
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British Administration and Economic Impact — General Studies Paper I · 11 cards
Land revenue was the primary source of colonial income
The British experimented with three main systems to maximise extraction while minimising administrative costs.
Permanent Settlement (1793)
created a class of zamindars as intermediaries who paid fixed revenue to the British regardless of actual collections, leading to rack-renting of peasants.
Ryotwari System
established direct settlement between the government and individual cultivators (ryots), eliminating intermediaries but imposing heavy assessments directly on peasants.
Mahalwari System
was a compromise where village communities collectively held responsibility for revenue payment.
De-industrialisation
refers to the destruction of India's traditional handicraft industries through deliberate British trade policies favouring manufactured imports from Britain.
Drain of Wealth theory
, articulated by Dadabhai Naoroji, explained how India's resources flowed to Britain without equivalent returns — through Home Charges, salaries, and trade imbalances.
Railways served colonial interests first
facilitating raw material extraction and troop movement rather than genuine economic development.
Education policy
aimed to create a class of Indians who would assist in administration, famously articulated in Macaulay's Minute (1835).
Permanent Settlement
Introduced By: Lord Cornwallis · Year: 1793 · Region: Bengal, Bihar, Odisha · Key Feature: Fixed revenue in perpetuity; zamindars as proprietors
Ryotwari
Introduced By: Thomas Munro & Alexander Read · Year: 1820 (Madras), extended later · Region: Madras, Bombay · Key Feature: Direct settlement with cultivators; 50% of produce as revenue
Mahalwari
Introduced By: Holt Mackenzie · Year: 1822 · Region: Central Provinces, Punjab, parts of UP · Key Feature: Village-based collective responsibility
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Indian Polity and Governance — Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Constitution as Supreme Law
India's Constitution is the longest written constitution; it establishes the framework for governance and is the touchstone against which all laws are tested.
Parliamentary System with Federal Structure
India borrowed the parliamentary model from Britain (collective responsibility, fusion of executive-legislature) but has a federal structure with strong unitary features (single citizenship, integrated judiciary, All-India Services).
Basic Structure Doctrine
Established in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)—Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution but cannot destroy its basic structure (federalism, secularism, judicial review, separation of powers).
Separation yet Interdependence of Organs
Legislature makes laws, Executive implements, Judiciary interprets—but they check each other through mechanisms like judicial review, impeachment, and question hour.
Fundamental Rights as Justiciable Guarantees
Articles 12–35 provide enforceable rights against State action; can be suspended during Emergency (except Articles 20 and 21 under Article 359).
DPSP as Non-Justiciable Guidelines
Articles 36–51 direct State policy; not enforceable in courts but fundamental in governance. Courts have harmonised them with Fundamental Rights in cases like Minerva Mills.
Cooperative and Competitive Federalism
Constitution divides powers through three lists (Union, State, Concurrent); recent emphasis on cooperative federalism through NITI Aayog, GST Council.
Constitutional Morality
Emerging doctrine requiring constitutional functionaries to act within the spirit, not merely the letter, of the Constitution.
Article 1
India shall be a Union of States
Article 14
Equality before law and equal protection of laws
Article 19
Six freedoms (speech, assembly, association, movement, residence, profession)
Article 21
Right to life and personal liberty (expanded to include privacy, dignity, environment)
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Parliament — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Bicameral Legislature
Lok Sabha represents the people directly (elected), while Rajya Sabha represents the States (elected indirectly by State Legislative Assemblies). This ensures both popular will and federal balance.
Lok Sabha Composition
Maximum 552 members—530 from States, 20 from Union Territories, and 2 Anglo-Indians nominated by President (now discontinued after 104th Amendment, 2019). Current effective strength is 543.
Rajya Sabha Composition
Maximum 250 members—238 elected by State/UT legislatures using single transferable vote, 12 nominated by President for expertise in literature, science, art, or social service. It is a permanent House; 1/3 members retire every 2 years.
Sessions of Parliament
Three sessions typically—Budget Session (February-May), Monsoon Session (July-September), Winter Session (November-December). President summons sessions; gap between two sessions cannot exceed 6 months.
Quorum
1/10th of total membership of each House required to conduct business.
Joint Sitting (Article 108)
Convened by President to resolve deadlock on ordinary Bills. Not applicable to Money Bills or Constitution Amendment Bills. Presided by Lok Sabha Speaker.
Dissolution
Only Lok Sabha can be dissolved (by President on PM's advice). Rajya Sabha is never dissolved. Normal Lok Sabha term is 5 years but can be extended during Emergency.
Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule)
Disqualifies members who defect from party or vote against party whip. Decision by Speaker/Chairman; subject to judicial review.
Term
Lok Sabha: 5 years · Rajya Sabha: Permanent (6-year individual term)
Minimum age
Lok Sabha: 25 years · Rajya Sabha: 30 years
Presiding Officer
Lok Sabha: Speaker · Rajya Sabha: Vice-President (ex-officio Chairman)
Money Bill
Lok Sabha: Exclusive power to introduce · Rajya Sabha: Can only suggest amendments (14 days)
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Plants, Animals and Microbiology — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Cell Theory
All living organisms are composed of cells; the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life; all cells arise from pre-existing cells (Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow).
Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes (bacteria, cyanobacteria) lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, protists) have a true nucleus, mitochondria, and other organelles.
Plant Cell Uniqueness
Plant cells possess a rigid cell wall (cellulose), chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and large central vacuoles—absent in animal cells.
Photosynthesis Equation
6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. Occurs in chloroplasts; converts solar energy into chemical energy stored in glucose.
Respiration vs Fermentation
Aerobic respiration (with oxygen) yields ~36-38 ATP per glucose molecule; anaerobic fermentation yields only 2 ATP. Fermentation produces ethanol (yeast) or lactic acid (bacteria, muscles).
Five-Kingdom Classification
(Whittaker): Monera (bacteria), Protista (unicellular eukaryotes), Fungi, Plantae, Animalia—based on cell structure, mode of nutrition, and body organisation.
Nitrogen Cycle Role of Microbes
Rhizobium (legume root nodules) and Azotobacter fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia; Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter convert ammonia to nitrates usable by plants.
Symbiosis Types
Mutualism (both benefit—lichens), Commensalism (one benefits, other unaffected—orchids on trees), Parasitism (one benefits at other's expense—tapeworm).
Mitochondria = "Powerhouse of cell"
Site of ATP production via cellular respiration
Ribosomes = Protein factories
Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light
Reflects green; basis of plant colour
Monocots vs Dicots
Monocots: parallel veins, fibrous roots, floral parts in 3s (rice, wheat). Dicots: reticulate veins, taproot, floral parts in 4s/5s (pulses, mustard)
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Awards, Honours and Sports — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Hierarchy of Indian Civilian Honours
Bharat Ratna is the highest civilian award (no formal ranking but supreme in prestige), followed by the Padma series—Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri in descending order. The Padma Awards are announced on Republic Day eve (25th January); the Bharat Ratna has no fixed announcement date.
Conferring Authority Matters
Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are conferred by the President of India; Sahitya Akademi Awards by Sahitya Akademi (autonomous body); National Sports Awards by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports.
Nobel Prize Categories
Six categories—Physics, Chemistry, Physiology/Medicine, Literature, Peace (awarded in Oslo), and Economic Sciences (technically "Sveriges Riksbank Prize"). No Nobel for Mathematics.
Dronacharya vs. Dhyan Chand
Dronacharya Award recognises coaches; Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna (renamed from Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna in 2021) is the highest sporting honour for athletes.
Jnanpith Award
Highest Indian literary award, given for lifetime contribution to Indian literature in any language included in the Eighth Schedule or in English. Administered by Bharatiya Jnanpith.
Booker Prize Structure
The Booker Prize is for novels in English published in UK/Ireland; the International Booker Prize is for translated fiction. Indian-origin winners include Arundhati Roy (1997), Kiran Desai (2006), Aravind Adiga (2008).
Gallantry Awards Hierarchy
Param Vir Chakra (highest wartime), Maha Vir Chakra, Vir Chakra for wartime gallantry; Ashoka Chakra (highest peacetime), Kirti Chakra, Shaurya Chakra for peacetime bravery.
Bharat Ratna
Field: Any field (exceptional service) · Conferred By: President of India · Key Detail: No formal selection committee; PM recommends
Padma Awards
Field: All fields · Conferred By: President of India · Key Detail: Announced 25th January; online nominations open
Jnanpith
Field: Literature · Conferred By: Bharatiya Jnanpith · Key Detail: Cash prize + bronze Vagdevi statue
Sahitya Akademi
Field: Literature · Conferred By: Sahitya Akademi · Key Detail: Given in 24 languages
Nobel Prize
Field: Six categories · Conferred By: Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Karolinska Institutet's Nobel Assembly, Swedish Academy (Literature)/Norwegian Nobel Committee (Peace) · Key Detail: Announced in October; awarded 10th December
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External Sector — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Balance of Payments (BoP)
is a systematic record of all economic transactions between residents of India and the rest of the world during a financial year. It always balances in accounting terms — any deficit in one account is offset by surplus elsewhere or through reserve changes.
Current Account
records trade in goods (merchandise), services (invisibles like IT, tourism), primary income (wages, investment income), and secondary income (remittances, grants). India typically runs a current account deficit because merchandise imports exceed exports.
Capital Account
(officially "Capital and Financial Account") records capital transfers and acquisition/disposal of non-produced, non-financial assets. The Financial Account tracks FDI, FPI, loans, banking capital, and reserve assets.
Exchange Rate
is the price of one currency in terms of another. India follows a managed float (dirty float) system — market determines the rate, but RBI intervenes to curb excessive volatility.
FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)
involves lasting interest and significant control (10% or more equity stake) in an enterprise. It is long-term, stable, and brings technology and management expertise.
FPI (Foreign Portfolio Investment)
involves investment in financial assets (stocks, bonds) without control or lasting interest. It is short-term, volatile, and often called "hot money."
FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act), 1999
replaced FERA and governs all foreign exchange transactions. It shifted focus from conservation of forex to facilitating external trade and payments.
WTO
is the only global international organisation dealing with rules of trade between nations. It operates on principles of non-discrimination (MFN, National Treatment), reciprocity, and binding commitments.
BoP Identity
Current Account + Capital Account + Errors & Omissions = Change in Forex Reserves
Current Account Deficit
CAD = Imports of goods & services − Exports of goods & services − Net transfers − Net income
India's forex reserves
Comprise foreign currency assets, gold, SDRs, and reserve tranche position in IMF
FDI routes
Automatic route (no prior approval) and Government route (approval needed for sensitive sectors)
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Economic and Social Development — General Studies Paper I · 8 cards
GDP at market price vs factor cost
GDP(MP) includes indirect taxes minus subsidies; GDP(FC) excludes them. India now uses GVA (Gross Value Added) at basic prices with base year 2011-12.
Inflation measurement
WPI (Wholesale Price Index) tracks producer-level prices; CPI (Consumer Price Index) measures retail prices faced by consumers. RBI targets CPI inflation (4% ± 2%).
Fiscal deficit vs revenue deficit
Fiscal deficit = total expenditure minus total receipts excluding borrowings. Revenue deficit = revenue expenditure minus revenue receipts. Revenue deficit indicates government is borrowing for consumption, not investment.
Monetary policy transmission
RBI changes repo rate → banks adjust lending rates → affects borrowing, spending, and inflation. External benchmarking of loans has improved transmission since 2019.
Current account vs capital account
Current account covers trade in goods/services, remittances, income. Capital account covers FDI, FPI, loans, NRI deposits. India typically runs current account deficit financed by capital inflows.
Inclusive growth
Growth that creates employment, reduces poverty, and ensures benefits reach marginalised sections—women, SC/ST, minorities, disabled persons.
Demographic dividend
India's working-age population (15-64) exceeds dependents, potentially boosting growth if productively employed. Window open until approximately 2055.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
17 goals adopted by UN in 2015, deadline 2030. India's performance tracked by NITI Aayog's SDG India Index.
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Pollution and Waste Management — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Air pollution
arises from vehicular emissions, industrial discharge, construction dust, stubble burning, and domestic fuel combustion. Key pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, SO₂, NOₓ, CO, O₃ (ground-level ozone), lead, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Water pollution
results from industrial effluents, agricultural runoff (fertilisers, pesticides), domestic sewage, and solid waste dumping. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) are standard quality indicators.
Soil pollution
stems from excessive fertilisers, pesticides, industrial waste, improper landfills, and plastic accumulation. Leads to loss of soil fertility and groundwater contamination.
Noise pollution
is regulated under the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. Categories: industrial, commercial, residential, and silence zones (within 100 m of hospitals, schools, courts).
E-waste
includes discarded electronic devices. Governed by E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, which replaced the 2016 Rules from 1 April 2023. India is the third-largest e-waste generator globally. EPR mandates producers to collect and recycle.
Plastic waste
regulated under Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (amended 2021). Ban on single-use plastics (below 75 microns from 30 September 2021, 120 microns from 2022). EPR framework introduced for producers, importers, and brand owners.
Bio-medical waste
includes human tissues, sharps, expired medicines, soiled dressings. Governed by Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016. Colour-coded bins mandatory: yellow (incineration), red (autoclaving/recycling), white (sharps), blue (glassware).
Waste-to-Energy (WtE)
converts non-recyclable waste into electricity, heat, or fuel. Technologies include incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, and biomethanation. Controversial due to emissions and inefficiency with unsegregated Indian waste.
CPCB
Central Pollution Control Board under MoEFCC; monitors air and water quality; sets standards (NAAQS for air, CPCB standards for effluents). Established under Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
SPCBs/PCCs
State Pollution Control Boards / Pollution Control Committees (UTs) implement pollution laws; grant consent to establish and operate industries.
NGT
National Green Tribunal (2010) adjudicates environmental disputes. Orders not appealable in High Courts—only Supreme Court.
CAQM
Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and adjoining areas (2021 Act). Supersedes EPCA. Statutory body with powers to issue directions, impose penalties.
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Economic Geography of the World — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Locational factors for industry
Proximity to raw materials, energy sources, labour, markets, transport networks, and government policy collectively determine where industries cluster.
Industrial inertia
Industries often remain in original locations even after initial advantages disappear (e.g., textile mills in Manchester) due to sunk costs, skilled labour pools, and infrastructure.
Comparative advantage and trade
Countries specialise in goods they can produce at lower opportunity cost, driving global trade patterns—Ricardo's principle remains foundational.
Resource curse (Dutch Disease)
Mineral-rich nations sometimes experience slower growth due to currency appreciation, neglect of manufacturing, and governance failures.
Agro-climatic determinism
Temperature, rainfall, and soil type largely dictate which crops dominate a region (e.g., rice in monsoon Asia, wheat in temperate grasslands).
Choke points in trade
Straits like Hormuz, Malacca, and Suez Canal are critical for global commodity flows; any disruption has immediate price effects.
Energy transition geography
Shift from fossil fuels to renewables is redistributing economic power—lithium (Chile, Australia), cobalt (DRC), and rare earths (China) are the new strategic resources.
Top steel producers
China (>50% of world output), India, Japan, USA, Russia
Major industrial regions
Ruhr (Germany), Great Lakes (USA-Canada), Kanto (Japan), Pearl River Delta (China), Donbas (Ukraine)
Largest oil producers
USA, Saudi Arabia, Russia (order varies yearly); OPEC controls ~40% of global output
Largest natural gas
Russia, Iran, Qatar hold largest reserves; Qatar leads LNG exports
Coal reserves
USA, Russia, Australia, China, India (in approximate order of proven reserves)
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Revolt of 1857 — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Doctrine of Lapse
Lord Dalhousie's policy of annexing princely states where rulers died without natural heirs (adopted sons not recognised). Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and Sambalpur were annexed, creating resentment among Indian rulers.
Subsidiary Alliance grievances
States under this system lost military autonomy and faced financial drain; their armies were disbanded, creating unemployed soldiers who later joined the revolt.
Economic exploitation
De-industrialisation ruined traditional artisans; oppressive land revenue systems (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari) dispossessed peasants and zamindars; drain of wealth fuelled discontent.
Military grievances of sepoys
Indian soldiers faced racial discrimination, no promotions beyond a point, lower pay than Europeans, and were required to serve overseas (crossing the sea violated caste rules under the General Service Enlistment Act, 1856).
Immediate trigger—Enfield rifle cartridges
Rumours that cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat offended both Hindu and Muslim sepoys, as loading required biting off the cartridge end.
Spark at Meerut (10 May 1857)
Sepoys refused cartridges, were court-martialled, and imprisoned. Their comrades mutinied, marched to Delhi, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah II as Emperor of India.
Nature of the revolt
Primarily confined to north and central India; large parts of Punjab, southern India, and eastern Bengal remained largely unaffected or even assisted the British.
Lack of unified leadership and coordination
Regional leaders fought for local causes; no common ideology or centralised command weakened the uprising.
First incident
Mangal Pandey attacked British officers at Barrackpore on 29 March 1857; hanged on 8 April 1857
Main outbreak
10 May 1857 at Meerut
Symbol of unity
Bahadur Shah Zafar declared nominal leader; Delhi became the revolt's symbolic centre
Delhi recaptured
September 1857 by British forces
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Judiciary — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Integrated Judicial System
Unlike the USA's dual system, India has a single hierarchy — Supreme Court at apex, High Courts at state level, and subordinate courts below. All courts apply both central and state laws.
Independence of Judiciary
Secured through security of tenure, fixed service conditions, ban on practice after retirement (for SC judges), expenses charged on Consolidated Fund, and the collegium system of appointments.
Judicial Review
Power of courts to examine the constitutionality of legislative and executive actions. Derived from Articles 13, 32, 131-136, and 226. It is part of the basic structure (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973).
Original Jurisdiction of SC
Exclusive in Centre-State and inter-State disputes (Article 131). Shared with HCs for enforcement of Fundamental Rights (Article 32).
Appellate Jurisdiction of SC
Constitutional matters (Article 132), civil matters (Article 133), criminal matters (Article 134), and by special leave (Article 136 — widest discretionary power).
PIL (Public Interest Litigation)
Relaxation of locus standi allowing any public-spirited person to approach courts on behalf of disadvantaged groups. Pioneered by Justices P.N. Bhagwati and V.R. Krishna Iyer in the late 1970s.
Tribunals
Quasi-judicial bodies under Article 323A (administrative tribunals like CAT) and Article 323B (other matters like tax, labour). They reduce burden on regular courts but their orders are subject to judicial review by High Courts.
Judicial Activism vs Overreach
Activism means proactive interpretation to protect rights (e.g., Vishaka guidelines). Overreach occurs when judiciary encroaches on legislative/executive domain, disturbing separation of powers.
Constitutional Articles
Supreme Court: 124-147 · High Court: 214-231
Judges
Supreme Court: CJI + 33 (current sanctioned: 34) · High Court: Varies by state
Appointment
Supreme Court: President on collegium recommendation · High Court: President; Governor consulted
Retirement Age
Supreme Court: 65 years · High Court: 62 years
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Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Recombinant DNA Technology
Combining DNA from different sources using restriction enzymes (molecular scissors) and ligases (molecular glue) to create new genetic combinations. Foundation of all genetic engineering.
Vectors
DNA molecules that carry foreign DNA into host cells. Common vectors include plasmids (circular bacterial DNA), bacteriophages, and cosmids. Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used for plant transformation.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Technique to amplify small DNA samples into millions of copies. Uses Taq polymerase (heat-stable enzyme from Thermus aquaticus). Essential for DNA fingerprinting, disease diagnosis, forensics.
Gene Editing vs. Genetic Modification
Traditional GMOs insert foreign genes; gene editing (CRISPR) precisely modifies existing genes without necessarily adding foreign DNA. This distinction matters for regulation.
Transgenic Organisms
Organisms containing genes from another species. Examples: Bt crops (bacterial gene), GloFish (jellyfish gene in fish).
Totipotency
Ability of a single cell to develop into a complete organism. Basis for plant tissue culture and cloning.
Stem Cells
Undifferentiated cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation into specialised cell types. Key to regenerative medicine.
Biosafety
Measures to prevent unintended release of GMOs and protect biodiversity. Governed in India by EPA 1986 and Rules 1989.
First GM crop approved in India
Bt Cotton (2002)
Bt toxin source
Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium
Bt Brinjal status
Moratorium since 2010 (not approved for cultivation)
CRISPR full form
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
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Reports and Indices — General Studies Paper I · 7 cards
Index vs Report distinction
An index provides a quantitative ranking (e.g., HDI rank 134), while a report offers qualitative analysis with recommendations (e.g., World Economic Outlook). Some publications combine both.
Publishing body identification
Most indices come from UN agencies (UNDP, FAO, WHO), World Bank, WEF, or specialised NGOs (Transparency International, Reporters Without Borders). Knowing the parent body helps eliminate wrong options.
Methodology matters
Indices use weighted combinations of indicators. HDI uses life expectancy, education, and income. A question may ask which parameter is NOT part of an index.
Periodicity
Most major indices are annual. Some (Global Competitiveness Report) have been paused or restructured. Know which indices are currently active.
India's neighbourhood comparisons
UPSC can ask whether India ranks above or below Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, or China in specific indices—particularly HDI, GHI, and Gender indices.
Discontinued/revised indices
Ease of Doing Business was discontinued in 2021 due to data manipulation concerns. Such developments are exam-relevant.
Sub-indices and components
Many reports have sub-indices (e.g., Inequality-adjusted HDI, Gender Development Index within the Human Development Report).
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Agriculture — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Cropping pattern
refers to the proportion of area under different crops at a given time; influenced by climate, soil, irrigation, market prices, and government policies (MSP incentives often skew patterns toward rice-wheat).
Minimum Support Price (MSP)
is the floor price announced by the government for 22 mandatory and 1 sugarcane (FRP) crop to protect farmers from price crashes; recommended by CACP (Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices), approved by Cabinet.
Procurement
is the actual government purchase at MSP, primarily done by FCI for rice and wheat; effective only where procurement infrastructure exists (Punjab, Haryana, MP).
Public Distribution System (PDS)
is the food distribution network supplying subsidised foodgrains through Fair Price Shops; now largely subsumed under NFSA 2013.
National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013
provides legal entitlement: 5 kg/person/month to 75% rural and 50% urban population at ₹3/2/1 per kg for rice/wheat/coarse grains; Antyodaya households get 35 kg/family.
Agricultural credit
flows through institutional (banks, cooperatives, RRBs) and non-institutional (moneylenders) sources; Kisan Credit Card (KCC) is the primary instrument for short-term crop loans.
Agricultural marketing reforms
aim to dismantle APMC monopoly, enable direct farmer-buyer trade, and create a unified national market; key initiatives include e-NAM, model APLM Act 2017, and the repealed Farm Acts of 2020.
Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs)
are collectives registered under Companies Act or Cooperative Societies Act to aggregate produce, bargain better prices, and access credit.
MSP crops
22 + 1 (sugarcane under FRP): 7 cereals, 5 pulses, 7 oilseeds, 4 commercial crops
MSP calculation (since 2018-19)
At least 1.5 times the cost of production (A2+FL); A2 = paid-out costs, FL = imputed family labour
FCI
Nodal agency for central pool procurement and buffer stock management
Buffer stock norms (1 April)
Rice 13.58 MT, Wheat 7.46 MT (operational + strategic reserve)
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Environmental Laws and Organisations — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Environment Protection Act, 1986 (EPA)
is the umbrella legislation enacted post-Bhopal Gas Tragedy under Article 253 (implementing international obligations). It empowers the Central Government to take all measures for environmental protection.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (WPA)
provides for protection of wild animals, birds, and plants. It established the framework for wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, and created schedules for species-based protection levels (originally I to VI; four since the 2022 Amendment).
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (FCA)
restricts de-reservation of forests and use of forest land for non-forest purposes without prior Central Government approval. Amended in 2023 to exclude certain strategic and security projects.
National Green Tribunal (NGT)
, established in 2010 under NGT Act, is a specialised quasi-judicial body for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection. India was the third country (after Australia and New Zealand) to establish such a body.
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
is a statutory body under Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. It sets standards for emissions and effluents, and coordinates with State Pollution Control Boards.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
is the nodal ministry for environmental governance, EIA clearances, and implementation of international commitments.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)
, headquartered in Nairobi, is the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda.
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)
maintains the Red List of Threatened Species and provides scientific expertise on biodiversity conservation.
Wildlife Protection Act
Year: 1972 · Key Feature: Schedules I-IV since 2022 (earlier I-VI); National Board for Wildlife
Water Act
Year: 1974 · Key Feature: Created CPCB and SPCBs
Forest Conservation Act
Year: 1980 · Key Feature: Prior Central approval for diversion
Air Act
Year: 1981 · Key Feature: Extended CPCB jurisdiction to air pollution
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Environmental Ecology, Biodiversity and Climate Change — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Ecosystem Services
Four categories — provisioning (food, water), regulating (climate, flood control), cultural (recreation, spiritual), and supporting (nutrient cycling, soil formation).
Ecological Succession
Primary succession occurs on bare substrate (lava, rock); secondary succession on disturbed but soil-present areas. Climax community represents the stable, final stage.
Biodiversity Hotspots
36 globally; India has 4 — Western Ghats, Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland. Criteria: at least 1,500 endemic vascular plants AND at least 70% habitat loss.
In-situ vs Ex-situ Conservation
In-situ (on-site) includes national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reserves. Ex-situ (off-site) includes zoos, seed banks, botanical gardens, cryopreservation.
Carbon Cycle and Sinks
Oceans are the largest carbon sink, followed by forests and soil. Deforestation and ocean acidification reduce sink capacity.
Greenhouse Effect vs Global Warming
Greenhouse effect is natural and life-sustaining; enhanced greenhouse effect due to anthropogenic emissions causes global warming.
Paris Agreement Architecture
Bottom-up approach with Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs); goal to limit warming to 1.5-2°C above pre-industrial levels; five-year review cycles (Global Stocktake).
Polluter Pays Principle
The entity causing pollution bears the cost of managing it; basis for environmental compensation and green tribunals.
India's forest cover
21.71% of geographical area (FSI 2021)
Biodiversity hotspots in India
Western Ghats, Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland
National parks in India
106 (as of 2023)
Tiger reserves
54 under Project Tiger
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Important Locations — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Strategic Mountain Passes
Himalayan passes control India-China-Pakistan-Nepal connectivity. Know the state, altitude significance, and any current dispute (e.g., Galwan is near Daulat Beg Oldi, not a pass itself, but linked to Karakoram Pass access).
International Straits
Narrow water bodies connecting seas; critical for trade (Malacca handles 25% of global oil trade) and geopolitics (Hormuz controls Persian Gulf oil exit).
Port Typology
Major ports (under Central government) vs. Non-major ports (under states). Recent focus on Chabahar (Iran), Gwadar (Pakistan-China), and Sittwe (Myanmar) for strategic reasons.
River Geography
Focus on origin points, tributaries, inter-state disputes, and transboundary rivers.
Protected Area Network
India has 106 National Parks, 567 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 18 Biosphere Reserves. Questions test location, state, special fauna, or UNESCO status.
Current Geographical Hotspots
A location appearing in news can become exam-relevant—border disputes, disaster zones, infrastructure projects, environmental conflicts.
International Boundaries
India shares land borders with 7 countries and maritime boundaries with 7 countries (including Pakistan, Maldives, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka).
Karakoram
State/UT: Ladakh · Connects: India–China (Xinjiang) · Significance: Highest pass on ancient trade route
Khunjerab
State/UT: PoK · Connects: Pakistan–China · Significance: On CPEC route
Zoji La
State/UT: Ladakh–J&K · Connects: Srinagar–Leh · Significance: Strategic, tunnel under construction
Shipki La
State/UT: Himachal Pradesh · Connects: India–Tibet · Significance: Sutlej enters India
Lipulekh
State/UT: Uttarakhand · Connects: India–Tibet · Significance: Kailash Mansarovar route, tri-junction dispute
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Socio-Religious Reform Movements — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Reformist vs Revivalist distinction
Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj sought to reform Hinduism using reason and Western ideas; Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission aimed to revive Vedic or spiritual traditions while rejecting later accretions.
Role of Western education
English-educated Indians formed the vanguard—exposure to Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and rationalism prompted introspection about Indian customs.
Social reform intertwined with religious reform
Movements attacked ritualism, idol worship, polytheism, and priestly dominance while simultaneously campaigning against sati, child marriage, and untouchability.
Institutional innovation
Reformers built schools, colleges, orphanages, and printing presses—creating a new public sphere. Example: Brahmo Samaj schools, DAV institutions, Aligarh College.
Regional and community character
Reform was not monolithic—Bengal led early (Brahmo), Maharashtra followed (Prarthana, Satya Shodhak), Punjab had Arya Samaj, Muslims had Aligarh and Deoband, Sikhs had Singh Sabha.
Women's emancipation as a central agenda
Widow remarriage, women's education, abolition of purdah and sati featured prominently across movements.
Seeds of nationalism
Social confidence restored by reform movements fed directly into political mobilisation; many Congress leaders emerged from reform backgrounds.
Brahmo Samaj
Founder(s): Raja Ram Mohan Roy · Year: 1828 · Key Tenets / Contributions: Monotheism, opposition to sati and idol worship, promotion of widow remarriage; journal Sambad Kaumudi
Tattvabodhini Sabha → Brahmo Samaj (revival)
Founder(s): Debendranath Tagore · Year: 1839/1843 · Key Tenets / Contributions: Systematised Brahmo theology; journal Tattvabodhini Patrika
Brahmo Samaj of India (split)
Founder(s): Keshab Chandra Sen · Year: 1866 · Key Tenets / Contributions: More radical social reforms; inter-caste marriage; later split again (1878) over his daughter's child marriage → Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
Prarthana Samaj
Founder(s): Atmaram Pandurang (with M.G. Ranade) · Year: 1867, Bombay · Key Tenets / Contributions: Social reform within Hindu framework; widow remarriage, women's education; less confrontational than Brahmo
Arya Samaj
Founder(s): Swami Dayanand Saraswati · Year: 1875, Bombay (shifted to Lahore) · Key Tenets / Contributions: "Back to the Vedas"; rejected Puranic Hinduism, idol worship, caste by birth; Shuddhi (reconversion), cow protection; DAV schools
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Federalism and Centre-State Relations — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Three-tier distribution of powers
Legislative subjects divided into Union List (98 items), State List (59 items), and Concurrent List (52 items) under Seventh Schedule. Residuary powers vest in Parliament (Article 248)—a key centralising feature unlike the US model.
Parliamentary supremacy in concurrent matters
When Union and State laws conflict on a Concurrent List subject, Union law prevails (Article 254). However, a State law can prevail if it receives Presidential assent.
Administrative relations follow legislative pattern
Executive power of Centre extends to Union List matters, States to State List. Centre can issue directions to States (Articles 256-257) and States must ensure compliance with Union laws.
Financial asymmetry by design
Major elastic taxes (income tax, customs) are with Centre, while GST is levied by both Centre and States (Article 246A); States depend on devolution and grants. Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends vertical (Centre-State) and horizontal (inter-State) distribution.
Emergency provisions tilt balance
During National Emergency (Article 352), Parliament can legislate on State subjects. President's Rule (Article 356) suspends State executive and legislative machinery entirely.
Inter-State Council as deliberative forum
Article 263 body meant to investigate and advise on Centre-State and inter-State disputes. Constituted in 1990 following Sarkaria Commission recommendation; meets irregularly.
Cooperative federalism vs competitive federalism
Post-2014 shift emphasised NITI Aayog's role in fostering competition among States through performance indices while maintaining cooperative frameworks like GST Council.
Union List
Constitutional Provision: Seventh Schedule, List I · Key Details: 98 subjects including defence, foreign affairs, banking, communications
State List
Constitutional Provision: Seventh Schedule, List II · Key Details: 59 subjects including police, public health, agriculture, land
Concurrent List
Constitutional Provision: Seventh Schedule, List III · Key Details: 52 subjects including education, forests, criminal law, marriage
Residuary Powers
Constitutional Provision: Article 248 · Key Details: Vest exclusively in Parliament
Finance Commission
Constitutional Provision: Article 280 · Key Details: Constituted every 5 years; recommends tax devolution and grants
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Space Technology — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
ISRO's Launch Vehicle Family
SLV → ASLV → PSLV → GSLV → GSLV Mk III (LVM3). Each represents increasing payload capacity and technological sophistication.
Polar vs Geosynchronous Orbits
PSLV places satellites in polar/sun-synchronous orbits (remote sensing); GSLV places satellites in Geostationary Transfer Orbit (communication satellites at 36,000 km).
Cryogenic Technology
Uses liquid hydrogen (-253°C) and liquid oxygen (-183°C) as propellants. India developed indigenous cryogenic engine (CE-20) after technology denial by USSR/USA. Critical for heavy-lift GSLV missions.
Satellite Classification by Function
Communication (INSAT, GSAT series), Remote Sensing (IRS, Cartosat, Resourcesat), Navigation (NavIC/IRNSS), Scientific (Astrosat, Aditya-L1).
Lagrange Points
Gravitational equilibrium points in Sun-Earth system. L1 (between Sun and Earth) ideal for solar observation — hence Aditya-L1's destination. L2 used by James Webb Space Telescope.
Space Reforms 2020
Opened space sector to private players; created IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) as regulatory body and re-oriented NSIL (New Space India Limited, set up in March 2019) to demand-driven commercial operations.
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV)
Technology demonstrator for reducing launch costs. RLV-TD successfully tested in 2016 and 2023 (landing experiment).
Aryabhata
Year: 1975 · Significance: India's first satellite (launched by USSR)
SLV-3
Year: 1980 · Significance: India's first indigenous launch vehicle; carried Rohini satellite
INSAT-1B
Year: 1983 · Significance: First operational communication satellite
Chandrayaan-1
Year: 2008 · Significance: Discovered water molecules on Moon using Moon Impact Probe
Mangalyaan (MOM)
Year: 2014 · Significance: First successful Mars mission by any country on maiden attempt; cost ₹450 crore
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Industry and Services — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Three-sector model
Primary (agriculture), Secondary (industry/manufacturing), Tertiary (services). India's tertiary sector contributes ~55% of GDP but only ~30% of employment—a structural imbalance.
Industrial Policy Resolution 1956
Classified industries into three schedules based on state involvement; laid foundation for public sector dominance until 1991 liberalisation.
1991 Liberalisation
Dismantled License Raj, opened FDI, reduced reserved sectors, initiated disinvestment—shifted India toward market-driven industrialisation.
MSMEs as the backbone
Contribute ~30% of GDP, ~35% of manufacturing output, and ~110 million jobs; second-largest employer after agriculture.
Services-led growth
IT-BPM, financial services, telecom, and tourism drive growth; India is the world's largest exporter of IT services.
PLI as new industrial policy
Shifts from input-based subsidies to output/sales-linked incentives; aims to create national champions and integrate into global value chains.
Atmanirbhar Bharat
Umbrella vision combining self-reliance with global competitiveness; encompasses Make in India, PLI, and defence indigenisation.
MSME Classification (revised 2020)
Micro: Investment ≤ ₹1 cr & Turnover ≤ ₹5 cr; Small: Investment ≤ ₹10 cr & Turnover ≤ ₹50 cr; Medium: Investment ≤ ₹50 cr & Turnover ≤ ₹250 cr
PLI Scheme
Launched 2020; covers 14 sectors including electronics, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, textiles, food processing; total outlay ~₹1.97 lakh crore over 5 years
Make in India
Launched September 2014; targets 25 sectors; aims to raise manufacturing share to 25% of GDP
FDI in Services
100% FDI under automatic route in most services; exceptions: banking (74%), insurance (74%), defence (74% under automatic, 100% under government route for critical tech)
IT-BPM Sector
Revenue ~$254 billion (2023-24); employs ~5.4 million directly; contributes ~7% of GDP
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International Conventions — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Convention vs Protocol distinction
A convention is a broad framework agreement; a protocol is a more specific, legally binding instrument under that convention (e.g., Montreal Protocol under the Vienna Convention).
Biodiversity cluster
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) serves as the umbrella, with Cartagena Protocol (biosafety/GMOs) and Nagoya Protocol (access and benefit sharing from genetic resources) as its two main protocols.
Wetland protection is treaty-based
Ramsar Convention (1971) is the oldest modern environmental treaty, specifically protecting wetlands of international importance.
Chemicals and waste treaties form a group
Stockholm (POPs), Basel (hazardous waste movement), Rotterdam (prior informed consent for chemicals), and Minamata (mercury) address toxic substances—often called the "chemicals cluster."
Ozone layer protection is a success story
The Montreal Protocol (1987) is considered the most successful environmental treaty, having phased out 99% of ozone-depleting substances.
India is party to all major conventions
India has ratified all treaties discussed here, though implementation timelines and commitments vary.
Secretariat locations
CBD, Cartagena, Nagoya—Montreal; Ramsar—Gland (Switzerland); Basel, Rotterdam, Stockholm—share a joint secretariat in Geneva; Minamata—Geneva; Montreal Protocol—Nairobi (under UNEP).
Ramsar
Year: 1971 · Focus: Wetlands · Secretariat: Gland, Switzerland · Key Feature: "Wetlands of International Importance"; India has 80+ Ramsar sites
Vienna Convention
Year: 1985 · Focus: Ozone layer framework · Secretariat: Nairobi · Key Feature: Framework for Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol
Year: 1987 · Focus: ODS phase-out · Secretariat: Nairobi · Key Feature: Kigali Amendment (2016) added HFCs; universal ratification (198 parties)
Basel Convention
Year: 1989 · Focus: Transboundary hazardous waste · Secretariat: Geneva · Key Feature: Controls movement of hazardous waste between nations; "prior informed consent"
CBD
Year: 1992 · Focus: Biodiversity · Secretariat: Montreal · Key Feature: Three objectives: conservation, sustainable use, fair benefit sharing
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Natural Disasters and Phenomena — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Earthquakes
result from sudden release of energy along fault lines; measured on Richter (magnitude) and Mercalli (intensity) scales. India's seismic zones range from II (low) to V (very high)—Zone V includes Northeast, J&K, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Kutch.
Volcanoes
occur at tectonic plate boundaries (convergent, divergent) and hotspots. India has only one active volcano—Barren Island in Andaman & Nicobar.
Cyclones
are low-pressure systems with strong winds rotating around a calm eye. Tropical cyclones need warm sea surface (above 27°C), Coriolis force, and low wind shear. They rotate anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere.
Tsunamis
are seismic sea waves triggered by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Speed decreases but wave height increases as they approach shallow coastal areas.
Floods
result from excessive rainfall, dam failure, or inadequate drainage. India's most flood-prone areas: Brahmaputra-Barak basins, Ganga plains, coastal Odisha-Andhra.
Droughts
are prolonged water deficits—meteorological (rainfall deficit), agricultural (soil moisture deficit), or hydrological (surface/groundwater deficit). Rajasthan, Maharashtra's Marathwada, Andhra Pradesh's Rayalaseema are chronically drought-prone.
El Niño
is abnormal warming of central-eastern Pacific Ocean, weakening trade winds. Causes deficient monsoons in India, droughts in Australia, floods in Peru.
La Niña
is opposite—abnormal cooling of Pacific. Generally brings normal or excess monsoons to India, droughts in South America.
Ocean currents
are continuous, directional movement of seawater driven by wind, temperature, salinity, and Earth's rotation. Warm currents raise coastal temperatures; cold currents lower them and support rich fisheries.
Seismic Zones
Zone V: NE India, Kutch, Himalayas; Zone IV: Delhi, Bihar; Zone I abolished (merged into II)
Cyclone Names
Bay of Bengal cyclones named by 13 countries (WMO/ESCAP panel); Arabian Sea cyclones intensifying due to warming
Cyclone Seasons
Bay of Bengal: Pre-monsoon (Apr-May), Post-monsoon (Oct-Nov); Arabian Sea: similar but fewer
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Indian National Movement (Moderate Phase) — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Foundation of INC (1885)
The first session was held in Bombay (December 1885) under W.C. Bonnerjee's presidency. A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, played a key organisational role. 72 delegates attended.
Safety Valve Theory
A controversial interpretation suggesting the INC was founded to provide a safe outlet for educated Indian discontent and prevent another 1857-type uprising. Historians now consider this an oversimplification.
Moderate Methods
Prayer, petition, persuasion; annual Congress sessions passing resolutions; sending delegations to England; using press and platform for propaganda; faith in British justice and gradual reform.
Three Main Demands
(1) Expansion of Legislative Councils with elected Indian members, (2) Indianisation of civil services (simultaneous ICS exams in India and England), (3) Reduction of military expenditure and home charges.
Economic Critique
Dadabhai Naoroji's "Drain Theory" (articulated in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India) exposed how wealth was being systematically transferred from India to Britain—a foundational argument that radicalised later generations.
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal on 16 October 1905, ostensibly for administrative efficiency, but with the clear aim of dividing Hindu-majority West Bengal from Muslim-majority East Bengal to weaken nationalism. This became the catalyst for Swadeshi and Boycott movements.
Swadeshi and Boycott (1905–1908)
Mass movements rejecting British goods and promoting indigenous products; marked a shift from elite politics to popular mobilisation; strongest in Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra.
Rise of Extremism
Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal) and Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab)—the "Lal-Bal-Pal" trio—advocated self-reliance (Swaraj), direct action and mass agitation rather than appeals to British goodwill.
First INC President
W.C. Bonnerjee (1885, Bombay)
First Woman INC President
Annie Besant (1917, Calcutta)
"Grand Old Man of India"
Dadabhai Naoroji
First Indian in British Parliament
Dadabhai Naoroji (1892, Finsbury Central, Liberal Party)
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State Government — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Governor is not elected but appointed
by the President (Article 155), serving at the President's pleasure with no fixed tenure security—unlike the President who can only be impeached.
Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor
(Article 164) but must command majority support in the Legislative Assembly; the CM is the real executive head while the Governor is nominal.
State Legislature can be unicameral or bicameral
only 6 states have Legislative Councils (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana, Maharashtra, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh); Parliament can create or abolish Councils under Article 169.
High Court is not subordinate to the Supreme Court
administratively; it supervises all subordinate courts in the state and has original, appellate, and writ jurisdiction.
Article 370 (now inoperative)
gave J&K special autonomy with a separate constitution; abrogated on 5 August 2019 through a Presidential Order and parliamentary resolution.
Article 371 series (371 to 371-J)
provides special provisions for 12 states covering matters like tribal areas, local administration, and development boards—these remain operative.
Governor's discretionary powers
arise in specific situations: hung assembly, recommending President's Rule, reserving bills, tribal area administration.
Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly
(Article 164), not to the Governor—parallel to Union arrangement.
Governor's Qualifications
Citizen of India, 35 years age, not member of either House of Parliament or State Legislature, no office of profit
Governor's Term
5 years (pleasure doctrine applies); can be transferred, removed without reasons
Money Bills in State
Governor's prior recommendation required; Legislative Council can only delay for 14 days
Ordinance Power (Article 213)
Governor can promulgate when legislature not in session; requires CM's advice (except discretionary matters)
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Defence Technology — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation)
is the apex body for military R&D under the Ministry of Defence, headquartered in New Delhi. It has developed most indigenous missile and radar systems.
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)
, launched in 1983 under Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, produced five missile systems: Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag. The programme was officially concluded in 2008 after achieving its objectives.
Nuclear triad
refers to the capability to deliver nuclear weapons from land (Agni missiles), sea (submarine-launched ballistic missiles like K-series), and air (fighter aircraft carrying nuclear bombs). India achieved full triad capability with INS Arihant's operationalisation in 2018.
BrahMos
is a joint venture between India (DRDO) and Russia (NPO Mashinostroyeniya), named after the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers. It is the world's fastest cruise missile in operational service.
Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs)
like HAL (Hindustan Aeronautics Limited), BEL (Bharat Electronics Limited), and MDL (Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders) are the manufacturing backbone for indigenous defence production.
Strategic Forces Command (SFC)
manages and administers India's tactical and strategic nuclear weapons, ensuring their secure storage and deployment.
No First Use (NFU)
is India's declared nuclear doctrine—India will not use nuclear weapons first but will respond with massive retaliation if attacked with nuclear weapons.
Prithvi-I
Type: Surface-to-surface ballistic missile · Range: 150 km · Key Feature: Army version, liquid-fuelled
Prithvi-II
Type: Surface-to-surface ballistic missile · Range: 250 km · Key Feature: Air Force version
Agni-I
Type: SRBM · Range: 700–900 km · Key Feature: Road-mobile, solid-fuelled
Agni-II
Type: MRBM · Range: 2,000–3,000 km · Key Feature: Rail and road mobile
Agni-III
Type: IRBM · Range: 3,000–5,000 km · Key Feature: Can reach deep into Asia
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General Science — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Newton's Laws of Motion
govern all mechanical phenomena: inertia, F = ma, and action-reaction pairs explain everything from rocket propulsion to why passengers lurch forward when a bus brakes.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
, only transformed (Law of Conservation of Energy). This underpins power generation, metabolic processes, and climate science.
Acids donate H⁺ ions; bases donate OH⁻ ions.
pH scale runs 0–14; below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic. Human blood pH is slightly basic (7.35–7.45).
Cell is the basic unit of life.
Prokaryotes (bacteria) lack a nucleus; eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi) have membrane-bound organelles.
DNA carries genetic information
in a double-helix structure. Genes code for proteins. Mutations cause genetic disorders and also drive evolution.
Vaccines stimulate the immune system
to produce antibodies without causing disease—either using weakened pathogens, inactivated viruses, or mRNA (as in COVID-19 vaccines).
Nuclear fission
(splitting heavy atoms like Uranium-235) powers reactors; nuclear fusion (combining light atoms like hydrogen) powers the sun and is the goal of future clean energy.
Satellites orbit based on Kepler's laws.
Geostationary satellites (36,000 km altitude) appear stationary over Earth and are used for communication and weather monitoring.
Speed of light
3 × 10⁸ m/s in vacuum
Speed of sound
~340 m/s in air at 20°C
Atmospheric pressure
1 atm = 101.3 kPa
Human body temperature
37°C (98.6°F)
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Poverty, Unemployment and Inclusion — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Poverty line in India
is consumption-based, not income-based. The Tendulkar Committee (2009) methodology set it at ₹816/month (rural) and ₹1,000/month (urban) at 2011-12 prices—roughly ₹27 and ₹33 per day respectively.
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
by NITI Aayog uses 12 indicators across health, education and living standards. A person is MPI-poor if deprived in at least one-third of these weighted indicators.
Unemployment types matter for policy
Structural (skill mismatch), Cyclical (economic downturns), Frictional (between jobs), Seasonal (agriculture-related), and Disguised (appears employed but adds zero marginal product—common in Indian agriculture).
MGNREGA
guarantees 100 days of unskilled manual work per rural household per year at the wage rate notified by the Centre under Section 6 of the Act. It's demand-driven and creates durable assets while providing a wage floor.
Financial inclusion
means universal access to banking, credit, insurance and pensions—measured through account ownership, credit penetration and insurance coverage.
Social inclusion
addresses caste, gender, disability and regional disparities through affirmative action, targeted schemes and legal protections.
Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
by NSSO is India's primary source for employment statistics, conducted quarterly for urban and annually for rural areas.
Tendulkar poverty line (2011-12)
₹816/month rural, ₹1,000/month urban
Rangarajan Committee line (2014)
₹972/month rural, ₹1,407/month urban
MPI poverty (NITI Aayog 2023)
~11.28% of population (down from 24.85% in 2015-16)
MGNREGA wage guarantee
100 days per household per year
PMJDY accounts opened
Over 52 crore (as of 2024)
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Renewable Energy and Sustainability — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Renewable vs Non-renewable distinction
Renewable sources replenish naturally within human timescales (solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal); non-renewable sources (coal, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear) have finite stocks and take millions of years to form.
Grid parity
The point where renewable energy costs equal or fall below conventional grid electricity costs. Solar has achieved grid parity in most Indian states, making it commercially viable without subsidies.
Capacity factor
Ratio of actual energy output to maximum possible output over a period. Solar averages 15-20%, wind 25-35%, while thermal plants achieve 60-80%. This explains why installed capacity differs from actual generation.
Intermittency challenge
Solar and wind are variable sources dependent on weather and time. This necessitates energy storage solutions (batteries, pumped hydro) or grid balancing with baseload power.
Energy mix approach
India pursues diversified energy sources rather than dependence on single source—ensures energy security and balances intermittency of renewables.
Decentralised energy
Rooftop solar and micro-grids enable power generation at consumption point, reducing transmission losses (which average 15-20% in India) and empowering rural areas.
Green hydrogen
Hydrogen produced using renewable electricity through electrolysis. India's National Green Hydrogen Mission targets 5 MMT annual production by 2030.
Solar
Key Characteristics: Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly to electricity; concentrated solar uses mirrors/lenses for thermal generation · India's Status (2024): ~75 GW installed; Rajasthan, Gujarat lead; target 280 GW by 2030
Wind
Key Characteristics: Kinetic energy of air converted via turbines; requires minimum 5 m/s wind speed · India's Status (2024): ~45 GW installed; Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka lead; offshore wind potential of 70 GW
Hydro
Key Characteristics: Potential energy of water at height; large hydro (>25 MW) often excluded from renewable category · India's Status (2024): ~47 GW large hydro; ~5 GW small hydro; Uttarakhand, Himachal major states
Biomass
Key Characteristics: Organic matter (crop residue, animal waste, wood) burned or converted to biogas/biofuel · India's Status (2024): ~10 GW installed; addresses stubble burning; GOBAR-DHAN scheme promotes
Geothermal
Key Characteristics: Heat from Earth's interior; limited potential in India · India's Status (2024): Negligible capacity; Puga Valley (Ladakh), Tattapani (Chhattisgarh) have potential
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Gandhian Era — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Satyagraha as method
Non-violent resistance through civil disobedience, non-cooperation, and peaceful protest—not passive submission but active defiance of unjust laws while accepting punishment.
Mass mobilisation
Gandhi brought peasants (Champaran, Kheda), industrial workers (Ahmedabad), and the urban middle class together, creating a pan-Indian movement transcending caste, region, and class.
Constructive programme
Alongside protest, Gandhi emphasised self-reliance—*khadi*, spinning, prohibition, Hindu-Muslim unity, and upliftment of untouchables (Harijan movement).
Phased withdrawal strategy
Gandhi suspended movements when violence erupted (Chauri Chaura 1922), prioritising non-violent discipline over immediate political gains.
Constitutional engagement
Despite mass agitation, Congress participated in Round Table Conferences and elections under the 1935 Act, blending extra-constitutional pressure with constitutional negotiation.
Do or Die (1942)
Quit India marked a shift—Gandhi called for immediate British withdrawal; the movement was leaderless after mass arrests, leading to spontaneous, sometimes violent, resistance.
Communal dimension
The period saw rising Hindu-Muslim tensions, the Muslim League's growth, and ultimately the demand for Pakistan (1940 Lahore Resolution).
1917
Event: Champaran Satyagraha (Bihar) · Significance: First civil disobedience in India; against tinkathia system forcing indigo cultivation
1918
Event: Kheda Satyagraha (Gujarat) · Significance: Peasant movement for revenue suspension after crop failure
1919
Event: Rowlatt Act · Significance: Allowed detention without trial; Gandhi called it "Black Act"; nationwide hartal 6 April 1919
13 Apr 1919
Event: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre · Significance: General Dyer ordered firing on unarmed crowd in Amritsar; ~400 killed (official), ~1000+ (nationalist estimates)
1920–22
Event: Non-Cooperation Movement · Significance: Boycott of schools, courts, councils, foreign cloth; suspended after Chauri Chaura violence (Feb 1922)
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Panchayati Raj and Urban Local Bodies — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Constitutional Status
The 73rd Amendment added Part IX (Articles 243-243O) for Panchayats; the 74th Amendment added Part IX-A (Articles 243P-243ZG) for Municipalities. Both came into force on 24 April 1993 and 1 June 1993 respectively.
Three-Tier Structure of PRIs
Gram Panchayat (village level), Panchayat Samiti/Block Panchayat (intermediate level), and Zila Parishad (district level). States with population below 20 lakh may skip the intermediate tier.
Three Types of Municipalities
Nagar Panchayat (transitional area), Municipal Council (smaller urban area), and Municipal Corporation (larger urban area)—classification left to state discretion.
Mandatory Reservations
One-third seats reserved for women in both PRIs and ULBs. Seats reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their population. One-third of reserved seats further reserved for SC/ST women.
Chairperson Reservations
Offices of Chairpersons at all levels reserved for SCs, STs, and women as per state law. Reservation for Backward Classes left to state discretion (not mandatory).
Five-Year Term
Fixed tenure of five years for all PRIs and ULBs. If dissolved earlier, fresh elections must be held within six months. The reconstituted body serves only the remaining period of the original five-year term.
State Election Commission (SEC)
Superintendence, direction, and control of elections to PRIs and ULBs vested in SEC. SEC appointed by Governor; removal similar to High Court judge (not identical to ECI removal).
State Finance Commission (SFC)
Governor must constitute SFC every five years to recommend distribution of finances between state and local bodies, grants-in-aid, and measures to improve their financial position.
Part Added
73rd Amendment (Panchayats): Part IX · 74th Amendment (Municipalities): Part IX-A
Articles
73rd Amendment (Panchayats): 243 to 243O · 74th Amendment (Municipalities): 243P to 243ZG
Schedule
73rd Amendment (Panchayats): Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects) · 74th Amendment (Municipalities): Twelfth Schedule (18 subjects)
Effective Date
73rd Amendment (Panchayats): 24 April 1993 · 74th Amendment (Municipalities): 1 June 1993
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IT and Emerging Technologies — General Studies Paper I · 9 cards
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
is the simulation of human intelligence by machines — enabling them to learn, reason, and make decisions. Machine Learning (ML) is a subset where systems improve through experience without explicit programming; Deep Learning uses neural networks with multiple layers.
Blockchain
is a decentralized, distributed ledger that records transactions across multiple computers. Once recorded, data cannot be altered retroactively, ensuring transparency and immutability. It underpins cryptocurrencies but has wider applications in land records, supply chains, and voting.
5G
is the fifth-generation mobile network offering speeds up to 10 Gbps, ultra-low latency (under 1 millisecond), and massive device connectivity. It enables real-time applications like autonomous vehicles, remote surgery, and smart cities.
Quantum Computing
harnesses quantum mechanics principles — superposition (qubits existing in multiple states simultaneously) and entanglement — to solve complex problems exponentially faster than classical computers. Threatens current encryption but promises breakthroughs in drug discovery and optimization.
Internet of Things (IoT)
connects physical devices embedded with sensors and software to exchange data over the internet. Applications include smart homes, industrial automation, precision agriculture, and wearable health monitors.
Web 3.0
represents the next evolution of the internet — decentralized, user-owned, built on blockchain. It shifts control from big tech platforms to users through tokens, smart contracts, and decentralized applications (dApps).
Cybersecurity
encompasses technologies, processes, and practices protecting networks, devices, and data from unauthorized access, attacks, or damage. Key threats include malware, phishing, ransomware, and state-sponsored cyber warfare.
AI
Key Feature: Learning from data patterns · Indian Initiative/Context: National AI Strategy (NITI Aayog); AI for All
IoT
Key Feature: Device-to-device connectivity · Indian Initiative/Context: Smart Cities Mission; ATAL IoT labs
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Demographics and Human Development — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Census of India
Conducted every 10 years by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner (under the Home Ministry). First census in 1872; first synchronous census in 1881. Census 2011 was the 15th census; Census 2021 was postponed due to COVID-19.
Demographic Transition Theory
Societies move through four stages—(1) high birth and death rates, (2) declining death rates with high birth rates causing population explosion, (3) declining birth rates, (4) low and stable birth and death rates. India is largely in Stage 3.
Demographic Dividend
Economic growth potential arising from a shift in population age structure when the working-age population (15-64) exceeds the dependent population (0-14 and 65+). India's window is estimated from 2005-2055, peaking around 2035-2040.
Dependency Ratio
Ratio of dependents (children + elderly) to working-age population. A falling dependency ratio signals demographic dividend opportunity.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Average number of children a woman would have during her reproductive years. Replacement level is 2.1. India's TFR fell to 2.0 (NFHS-5, 2019-21), below replacement level for the first time.
Human Development Index (HDI)
Composite index by UNDP measuring three dimensions—health (life expectancy at birth), education (mean and expected years of schooling), and standard of living (GNI per capita, PPP). Values range from 0 to 1.
Population Pyramid
Graphical representation showing age-sex distribution. India's pyramid is transitioning from expansive (broad base) to constrictive (narrowing base).
Sex Ratio
In India, calculated as females per 1000 males (global standard is males per 100 females). Child sex ratio (0-6 years) is a critical indicator of gender bias.
Total Population
Census 2011 Value: 121.09 crore · Recent/NFHS-5 Value: ~142 crore (2023 est.)
Decadal Growth Rate
Census 2011 Value: 17.7% (2001-2011) · Recent/NFHS-5 Value: Declining trend
Sex Ratio (Overall)
Census 2011 Value: 943 · Recent/NFHS-5 Value: 1020 (NFHS-5)
Child Sex Ratio (0-6)
Census 2011 Value: 919 · Recent/NFHS-5 Value: 929 (NFHS-5, sex ratio at birth)
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Revolutionary Movements — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Two streams of revolutionaries
Bengal-Maharashtra stream (influenced by Shakti worship, Bankim Chandra's writings) and Punjab stream (influenced by Arya Samaj, socialist ideas). Both rejected constitutional methods but differed in ideological foundations.
Individual heroism vs. mass revolution
Early revolutionaries focused on assassinations of specific British officials; later groups like HSRA aimed to inspire mass uprising through dramatic actions.
Overseas revolutionary networks
Ghadar Party operated from North America; revolutionaries also worked from London (India House), Paris, Berlin, and Japan—exploiting World War I to seek German and Japanese support.
Socialist influence on later revolutionaries
Bhagat Singh's generation was influenced by Marx, Lenin, and the Russian Revolution—distinguishing them from the earlier religious-nationalist revolutionaries.
INA's significance
Represented the largest organised armed force against British rule; the INA trials (1945-46) created massive public sympathy and arguably hastened British departure.
British response
Repressive laws (Rowlatt Act, Defence of India Act), transportation to Cellular Jail (Andaman), and execution of revolutionaries became rallying points for the national movement.
Anushilan Samiti
Year: 1902 · Key Figures: Pramathanath Mitra, Barindra Kumar Ghosh · Location: Calcutta, Bengal
Abhinav Bharat
Year: 1904 · Key Figures: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar · Location: Maharashtra
India House (London)
Year: 1905 · Key Figures: Shyamji Krishna Varma · Location: London
Muzaffarpur bombing (led to the Alipore Bomb Case)
Year: 1908 · Key Figures: Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki · Location: Muzaffarpur
Ghadar Party
Year: 1913 · Key Figures: Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna · Location: San Francisco, USA
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)
Year: 1924 · Key Figures: Sachindranath Sanyal, Ram Prasad Bismil · Location: Kanpur
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Constitutional Bodies — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Constitutional vs Statutory distinction
Constitutional bodies derive authority from the Constitution itself; their powers cannot be curtailed by ordinary legislation. Statutory bodies (like NHRC, CIC) are created by Parliament and can be modified or abolished by ordinary law.
Appointment pattern
Most constitutional body heads are appointed by the President, but the recommending authority varies—some require consultation (UPSC), others require committee recommendations (ECI members under 2023 Act changes).
Removal protection
Key officials enjoy security of tenure—removal typically requires an address by Parliament (similar to judges) or presidential reference to the Supreme Court, ensuring independence from executive pressure.
Reporting mechanism
Bodies such as UPSC (Article 323) and NCSC/NCST/NCBC (Articles 338/338A/338B) submit annual reports to the President, who causes them to be laid before Parliament. Non-implementation of recommendations must be explained through memoranda.
Independence safeguards
Service conditions cannot be varied to disadvantage after appointment; salaries charged on Consolidated Fund of India; post-retirement restrictions on government employment.
Advisory vs binding nature
Recommendations of bodies like Finance Commission and UPSC are advisory, not binding on the government, though departures must be justified.
ECI
Article: 324 · Appointment By: President · Tenure: 6 years or 65 years (whichever earlier) · Removal: Like SC Judge (CEC); By President on CEC's recommendation (other ECs)
UPSC
Article: 315-323 · Appointment By: President · Tenure: 6 years or 65 years · Removal: President after SC inquiry
CAG
Article: 148-151 · Appointment By: President · Tenure: 6 years or 65 years · Removal: Like SC Judge
Finance Commission
Article: 280 · Appointment By: President · Tenure: As specified by President · Removal: Term-based
NCSC
Article: 338 · Appointment By: President · Tenure: As specified by President · Removal: At pleasure
NCST
Article: 338A · Appointment By: President · Tenure: As specified by President · Removal: At pleasure
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Health and Medicine — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Universal Health Coverage (UHC)
WHO's goal that all people receive quality health services without financial hardship. India's Ayushman Bharat aligns with UHC principles.
Zoonotic Diseases
Infections transmitted from animals to humans (COVID-19, Nipah, Avian Flu, Ebola). Over 60% of emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic in origin.
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
When bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites no longer respond to medicines. Caused by overuse/misuse of antibiotics in humans, animals, and agriculture. Classified by WHO as a top-10 global public health threat.
Herd Immunity
When a sufficient proportion of a population is immune (through vaccination or prior infection), indirect protection is conferred to non-immune individuals.
One Health Approach
Recognises that human health, animal health, and environmental health are interconnected. Essential for tackling zoonoses and AMR.
Epidemiological Transition
Shift in disease burden from communicable diseases (TB, malaria) to non-communicable diseases (diabetes, heart disease, cancer) as countries develop. India faces a dual burden.
Health Determinants
Health outcomes depend not just on healthcare but on social determinants — nutrition, sanitation, education, income, and environment.
India's public (Centre + State) health expenditure
~2.1% of GDP (target: 2.5% by 2025 under National Health Policy 2017)
Ayushman Bharat launch
2018; two components — Health & Wellness Centres (HWCs) and Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY)
PM-JAY coverage
Rs 5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary hospitalisation; covers ~50 crore beneficiaries
National Health Mission
Umbrella programme since 2013; includes NHM-Rural and NHM-Urban
Polio-free India
Certified in 2014 by WHO
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Sustainable Development — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Three Pillars of Sustainability
Economic viability, environmental protection, and social equity must advance together; neglecting any one undermines long-term development.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
17 goals adopted by UN in 2015 under the 2030 Agenda, replacing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). India tracks progress through NITI Aayog's SDG India Index.
Green Economy
An economy that reduces environmental risks and ecological scarcities while achieving growth—low carbon, resource-efficient, and socially inclusive (UNEP definition).
Circular Economy
Moves away from the linear "take-make-dispose" model; emphasises reducing, reusing, recycling, and recovering materials to create closed-loop systems.
Sustainable Agriculture
Farming practices that meet current food needs while preserving ecosystem health—includes organic farming, zero-budget natural farming (ZBNF), precision agriculture, and agroforestry.
Decoupling
Breaking the link between economic growth and environmental degradation; a core objective of sustainable development strategies.
Intergenerational Equity
Central ethical principle—present generations hold resources in trust for future generations.
Planetary Boundaries
Nine Earth-system thresholds (climate change, biodiversity loss, nitrogen cycle, etc.) beyond which irreversible environmental damage occurs.
SDGs
17 goals, 169 targets, 232 indicators; Goal 13 (Climate Action) has 5 targets and acknowledges the UNFCCC as the primary forum for the global climate response; India ranks in the mid-range globally on SDG Index.
SDG India Index
Published by NITI Aayog; scores states/UTs from 0–100; Kerala, Tamil Nadu typically top performers; focus areas include poverty, health, education, gender equality.
Green Economy Initiatives (India)
National Action Plan on Climate Change (8 missions); Perform Achieve Trade (PAT) scheme for energy efficiency; Green Bonds issuance by IREDA and others.
Renewable Energy
India targets 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030; solar tariffs have fallen below ₹2/unit; International Solar Alliance (ISA) headquartered in Gurugram.
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Partition and Independence — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Cripps Mission (March 1942)
was a wartime effort to secure Indian cooperation against Japan; it offered Dominion Status after the war with a Constituent Assembly, but allowed provinces and princely states to opt out, which Congress rejected as potentially leading to "Balkanisation."
Cabinet Mission (May 1946)
rejected the demand for a separate Pakistan but proposed a three-tier structure: Union (defence, foreign affairs, communications), Groups of provinces (Group A: Hindu-majority, Group B: Muslim-majority NW, Group C: Bengal-Assam), and Provinces with residual powers.
Interim Government (September 1946)
was formed under Nehru, with Muslim League joining later but practicing obstructionism; this period saw communal violence, including the Great Calcutta Killings (August 1946) and Noakhali riots.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)
accelerated independence to August 1947, accepted partition based on religious majority, and provided for referenda in NWFP and Sylhet and boundary commissions under Radcliffe.
Indian Independence Act, 1947
was passed by British Parliament, creating two independent Dominions—India and Pakistan—effective August 15, 1947, with Governor-Generals for each and lapse of British paramountcy over princely states.
Lapse of Paramountcy
meant princely states were technically free to join either Dominion or remain independent; Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon led the integration effort through diplomacy, persuasion, and when necessary, coercion.
Instruments of Accession
were legal documents through which rulers ceded defence, external affairs, and communications to the Indian Union while initially retaining internal autonomy.
Police Action (Operation Polo)
in Hyderabad (September 1948) and military intervention in Junagadh demonstrated India's resolve to complete territorial integration despite resistance.
Cripps Mission
Year: March 1942 · Key Proposal/Outcome: Dominion Status post-war; right to secede for provinces; rejected by Congress ("post-dated cheque on a failing bank" — Gandhi)
Quit India Movement
Year: August 1942 · Key Proposal/Outcome: Mass civil disobedience; "Do or Die" call; leadership arrested
C. Rajagopalachari Formula
Year: 1944 · Key Proposal/Outcome: Accepted Muslim League's right to self-determination; rejected by Jinnah
Wavell Plan & Simla Conference
Year: June 1945 · Key Proposal/Outcome: Reconstituted Executive Council with parity; failed due to League's claim to nominate all Muslims
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Statutory and Regulatory Bodies — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Statutory vs Constitutional Bodies
Statutory bodies are created by Acts of Parliament; Constitutional bodies are established by the Constitution itself. Statutory bodies can be restructured through ordinary legislation.
Quasi-judicial Powers
Many statutory bodies (NGT, NHRC, CIC, Lokpal) can summon witnesses, examine evidence, and pass binding orders—functioning like courts for specific matters.
Independence Mechanism
Security of tenure, fixed terms, removal only through Supreme Court inquiry (for some bodies), and financial autonomy help insulate these bodies from executive pressure.
Sectoral Regulators
RBI (banking/monetary), SEBI (capital markets), TRAI (telecom), CCI (competition) regulate specific economic sectors to ensure fair practices and consumer protection.
Appellate Jurisdiction
Decisions of some regulators can be appealed to tribunals (e.g., SEBI orders to SAT, CCI orders to NCLAT, TRAI directions/orders to TDSAT).
Advisory vs Executive Functions
Some bodies (NITI Aayog) are purely advisory; others (CVC, Lokpal) have investigative and recommendatory powers; still others (RBI, SEBI) have direct regulatory and enforcement powers.
Whistleblower and Transparency Framework
CVC administers the whistleblower mechanism for corruption complaints; CIC enforces the Right to Information Act.
NHRC
Parent Act: Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 · Year: 1993 · Chairperson Appointed By: President (on recommendation of 6-member committee headed by PM) · Key Jurisdiction: Human rights violations by public servants
CIC
Parent Act: Right to Information Act, 2005 · Year: 2005 · Chairperson Appointed By: President (on recommendation of committee: PM, LoP in LS, Union Cabinet Minister) · Key Jurisdiction: Appeals under RTI; penalties on PIOs
CVC
Parent Act: CVC Act, 2003 (statutory since 2003; existed since 1964) · Year: 1964/2003 · Chairperson Appointed By: President (on recommendation of PM, Home Minister, LoP in LS) · Key Jurisdiction: Corruption in Central Government; superintendence over CBI (Delhi Special Police Establishment Act cases)
Lokpal
Parent Act: Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 · Year: 2013 (first Lokpal appointed 2019) · Chairperson Appointed By: President (selection committee: PM, Speaker, LoP in LS, CJI/nominee, eminent jurist) · Key Jurisdiction: Corruption by public functionaries including PM, Ministers, MPs
NITI Aayog
Parent Act: Executive Resolution (not an Act) · Year: 2015 · Chairperson Appointed By: PM is Chairperson · Key Jurisdiction: Policy think tank; replaced Planning Commission; no statutory status
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Nuclear Technology — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Nuclear fission
is the splitting of heavy atomic nuclei (uranium-235 or plutonium-239) to release enormous energy; this is the basis of all current nuclear power reactors.
Nuclear fusion
combines light nuclei (hydrogen isotopes) to release energy—powers the sun but remains commercially unviable on Earth.
Critical mass
is the minimum amount of fissile material needed to sustain a chain reaction; reactors are designed to maintain controlled criticality.
Enrichment
increases the concentration of U-235 (fissile isotope) in natural uranium (which is 99.3% non-fissile U-238); light water reactors need enriched uranium, while India's PHWRs use natural uranium.
Breeding
is producing more fissile material than consumed—central to India's second and third stages using fast breeder reactors.
Reprocessing
extracts plutonium from spent fuel, enabling its use in subsequent stages—a closed fuel cycle approach India follows.
Heavy water (D₂O)
is used as moderator and coolant in PHWRs; slows neutrons efficiently without absorbing them, allowing use of natural uranium.
Thorium-232
is fertile (not fissile)—must be converted to fissile U-233 through neutron absorption; India has about 25% of world's thorium reserves.
India's thorium reserves
~25% of global reserves (coastal monazite sands)
Uranium reserves in India
Limited; mainly in Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Tummalapalle (Andhra Pradesh)
First nuclear reactor
Apsara (1956), Asia's first research reactor
First nuclear power station
Tarapur (1969), Maharashtra—uses Boiling Water Reactors
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Social Sector Initiatives — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Central Sector vs Centrally Sponsored Schemes
Central sector schemes are 100% funded by the Centre (e.g., PMJDY). Centrally sponsored schemes involve cost-sharing with states (e.g., National Health Mission at 60:40 ratio for most states, 90:10 for NE and hilly states).
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)
Most welfare schemes now transfer benefits directly to Aadhaar-linked bank accounts, reducing leakages and middlemen.
Convergence Approach
Modern schemes emphasise convergence—Anganwadi centres link with POSHAN Abhiyaan, PMJAY with Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission, ensuring holistic outcomes.
Jan Dhan–Aadhaar–Mobile (JAM) Trinity
Foundation for financial inclusion and DBT; enables targeted delivery of subsidies and welfare payments.
Universal vs Targeted Schemes
Some schemes are universal (Swachh Bharat's sanitation goal) while others are targeted (PMJAY for bottom 40% families based on SECC data).
Rights-Based Approach
Schemes like Mid-Day Meal and ICDS now operate within the framework of right to food and right to education, creating legal entitlements.
Aspirational Districts Programme
Targets 112 most backward districts for accelerated development across health, education, nutrition, financial inclusion and basic infrastructure.
Ayushman Bharat – PMJAY
Year: 2018 · Nodal Ministry: Health & Family Welfare · Key Feature: Rs 5 lakh/family/year health cover; 10.74 crore poor families
PMJDY
Year: 2014 · Nodal Ministry: Finance · Key Feature: Zero-balance accounts; RuPay card; overdraft up to Rs 10,000
Swachh Bharat Mission
Year: 2014 · Nodal Ministry: Jal Shakti (Gramin) / Housing & Urban (Urban) · Key Feature: ODF status; toilet construction; solid waste management
PM POSHAN (erstwhile MDM)
Year: 2021 (renamed) · Nodal Ministry: Education · Key Feature: Hot cooked meal for Classes 1-8; now includes pre-primary in government schools
ICDS
Year: 1975 · Nodal Ministry: Women & Child Development · Key Feature: Supplementary nutrition, immunisation, health check-up via Anganwadi
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Indian Art and Culture — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Classical Dances (8 forms recognised by Sangeet Natak Akademi)
Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathak (North India), Kathakali (Kerala), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), Odissi (Odisha), Manipuri (Manipur), Mohiniyattam (Kerala), Sattriya (Assam). Each has a distinct costume, repertoire, and textual basis.
Hindustani vs Carnatic Music
Hindustani (North) uses ragas like Bhairav, Yaman; influenced by Persian elements; gharana system. Carnatic (South) is kriti-based, emphasises devotion; Trinity—Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri.
Temple Architecture Styles
Nagara (North)—curvilinear shikhara, no boundary wall, e.g., Khajuraho. Dravidian (South)—pyramidal vimana, gopuram gateway, e.g., Brihadeeswarar. Vesara (Deccan)—hybrid, e.g., Hoysala temples.
Indo-Islamic Architecture
Introduced true arch, dome, minarets; phases—Delhi Sultanate (austere), Provincial (regional fusion), Mughal (refinement with pietra dura, charbagh). Key: Qutub Minar, Gol Gumbaz, Taj Mahal.
Colonial Architecture
Indo-Saracenic (blending Indian motifs with Gothic/Victorian)—Victoria Memorial, Gateway of India, Madras High Court. Also Neo-Gothic (Bombay High Court), Neo-Classical (Raj Bhavan Kolkata).
Painting Traditions
Miniature schools—Mughal (realistic portraits), Rajput (romantic themes, bold colours), Pahari (Kangra, Basohli sub-schools), Deccan (Golconda, Bijapur). Folk: Madhubani (Bihar), Warli (Maharashtra), Pattachitra (Odisha), Kalamkari (Andhra).
Theatre Forms
Yakshagana (Karnataka), Theyyam (Kerala), Nautanki (UP), Tamasha (Maharashtra), Jatra (Bengal), Bhand Pather (Kashmir), Chhau (Odisha-Jharkhand-Bengal).
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India
43 sites (as of 2024)—35 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed.
Bharatanatyam
Originates from Sadir; revived by Rukmini Devi Arundale; based on Natya Shastra.
Kathakali
All-male traditionally; elaborate make-up (Pacha, Kathi, Thadi); stories from Ramayana/Mahabharata.
Sattriya
Founded by Srimanta Sankardev (15th–16th c.); performed in Vaishnavite monasteries (Sattras).
Khayal
Dominant Hindustani vocal form; associated with gharanas (Gwalior, Jaipur-Atrauli, Agra, Patiala).
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Constitutional Amendments — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Article 368
grants Parliament the power to amend the Constitution through addition, variation, or repeal of any provision, following prescribed procedures.
Three types of amendments exist
(1) Simple majority amendments (like Article 2, 3—formation of new states), (2) Special majority amendments (majority of total membership + two-thirds of members present and voting), and (3) Special majority plus ratification by half the state legislatures.
Ratification by states
is required for amendments affecting federal structure—election of President, extent of executive/judicial power, representation of states, Article 368 itself, and Seventh Schedule lists.
Amendment bills can be introduced in either House
(not Money Bills rule), do not require President's prior recommendation, and President must give assent (no pocket veto after 24th Amendment).
Basic Structure Doctrine
holds that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution to destroy its essential features—this is judge-made law, not found in the Constitution's text.
The doctrine evolved through a series of cases
Shankari Prasad (1951) → Golak Nath (1967) → Kesavananda Bharati (1973) → Minerva Mills (1980) → Waman Rao (1981).
Constituent power vs. ordinary legislative power
Article 368 grants constituent power, which is higher than ordinary law-making but still not unlimited.
1st
Year: 1951 · Key Provision: Added Ninth Schedule; restrictions on free speech (Article 19); land reform laws protected
7th
Year: 1956 · Key Provision: Reorganisation of states on linguistic basis; abolished Part B states
24th
Year: 1971 · Key Provision: Affirmed Parliament's power to amend any part including Fundamental Rights; President must assent
25th
Year: 1971 · Key Provision: Inserted Article 31C—DPSP (Article 39(b)(c)) over Fundamental Rights
42nd
Year: 1976 · Key Provision: "Mini-Constitution"—added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble; Fundamental Duties; curtailed judicial review
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Infrastructure — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Infrastructure classification
Economic infrastructure (transport, energy, communication) enables production; Social infrastructure (health, education) enhances human capital. Both are essential for inclusive growth.
Public-Private Partnership (PPP)
Contractual arrangement where private sector provides public assets/services. Key models include BOT (Build-Operate-Transfer), BOOT (Build-Own-Operate-Transfer), BOO (Build-Own-Operate), and HAM (Hybrid Annuity Model).
Hybrid Annuity Model (HAM)
Government provides 40% capital during construction; balance 60% recovered through annuity payments over 15 years. Reduces private sector risk, used extensively in highways.
Viability Gap Funding (VGF)
Government grant (up to 20% of project cost, extendable to 40%) to make economically justified but commercially unviable projects attractive for private investment.
National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP)
Unlocking value from brownfield public assets through structured leasing/ToT (Toll-Operate-Transfer) without ownership transfer. Target: ₹6 lakh crore (2021-25).
Logistics Performance Index
World Bank index measuring customs, infrastructure, shipment quality, timeliness. India improved from 54th (2014) and 44th (2018) to 38th (2023).
PM Gati Shakti
National Master Plan for multi-modal connectivity; integrates 16 ministries on single digital platform for coordinated infrastructure planning.
Roads
Key Scheme/Body: Bharatmala Pariyojana · Important Details: Phase-I: 34,800 km; economic corridors, feeder routes, coastal roads
Railways
Key Scheme/Body: Dedicated Freight Corridors · Important Details: Eastern (1,337 km) and Western (1,506 km) DFCs; Vande Bharat, Kavach system
Ports
Key Scheme/Body: Sagarmala · Important Details: Port modernisation, port-led industrialisation; 12 major ports under Major Port Authorities Act, 2021
Aviation
Key Scheme/Body: UDAN (RCS) · Important Details: Regional Connectivity Scheme; affordable flying to Tier-2/3 cities; VGF-supported
Energy
Key Scheme/Body: Saubhagya · Important Details: Universal household electrification (achieved 2019)
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Elections and Political Parties — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Election Commission of India (ECI)
is a permanent constitutional body under Article 324, responsible for superintendence, direction, and control of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and offices of President and Vice-President. It does not conduct elections to Panchayats and Municipalities (State Election Commissions do that).
Composition of ECI
Originally single-member; became multi-member (1 CEC + 2 ECs) in 1993. CEC and ECs have equal powers and emoluments (equivalent to Supreme Court judge). CEC can be removed only through impeachment; ECs can be removed only on CEC's recommendation.
Appointment
Under the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023, the President appoints the CEC and ECs on the recommendation of a Selection Committee of the PM, a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the PM, and the Leader of Opposition (or …
Representation of the People Act, 1950
deals with allocation of seats, delimitation, preparation of electoral rolls, and qualifications of voters. RPA, 1951 covers conduct of elections, election offences, election disputes, and disqualifications.
Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule, 1985)
Inserted by the 52nd Amendment to curb political defections. A member is disqualified if they voluntarily give up party membership or vote/abstain against party whip without prior permission. Exceptions: merger (2/3rd of party's legislative wing merging with another party) and presiding officers.
Political Parties
Registered with ECI under Section 29A of RPA, 1951. Classified as National (6% votes in 4+ states plus 4 Lok Sabha seats, or 2% seats in Lok Sabha from 3 states, or recognition as a state party in 4+ states) or State parties (specific criteria per state). Currently 6 national parties.
Pressure Groups
are informal, interest-based organizations that influence policy without contesting elections—trade unions, business associations, farmer groups, professional bodies. They differ from political parties in not seeking political power directly.
Article 324
Vests superintendence of elections in ECI
Article 325
Single electoral roll; no special rolls on religion, race, caste, or sex
Article 326
Adult suffrage (18 years, reduced from 21 by 61st Amendment, 1988)
Articles 327-329
Parliament's power to make laws on elections; bar on judicial interference in electoral matters
CEC Removal
Same manner as Supreme Court judge (impeachment)
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Rights Issues — General Studies Paper I · 11 cards
Human Rights
are inherent entitlements of every individual by virtue of being human—covering civil, political, economic, social, and cultural dimensions. India's framework derives from the Constitution, domestic legislation, and international treaties (UDHR, ICCPR, ICESCR).
Women's Rights
in India operate through a dual framework: constitutional guarantees (Articles 14, 15, 16, 39, 42) and specific legislations addressing violence, workplace harassment, and economic equality.
Child Rights
are protected under Article 21A (Right to Education), Article 24 (prohibition of child labour in hazardous industries), and through dedicated laws addressing juvenile justice, child labour, and protection from sexual offences.
Minority Rights
flow from Articles 29 and 30 (cultural and educational rights), supplemented by the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Minorities are identified by the Central Government under Section 2(c) of this Act.
Disability Rights
underwent a paradigm shift from a welfare-based to a rights-based approach with the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, expanding recognised disabilities from 7 to 21 categories.
Statutory and constitutional commissions
(statutory: NHRC, NCW, NCPCR, NCM; constitutional: NCSC and NCST under Articles 338 and 338A) are key implementation and monitoring bodies with recommendatory powers—they cannot enforce decisions like courts.
Women
Key Legislation/Provision: Domestic Violence Act, 2005 · Critical Point: Covers "shared household"; protection orders by Magistrate
Children
Key Legislation/Provision: POCSO Act, 2012 · Critical Point: Gender-neutral; special courts; child-friendly procedures
Minorities
Key Legislation/Provision: Article 30 · Critical Point: Right to establish and administer educational institutions
Disability
Key Legislation/Provision: RPwD Act, 2016 · Critical Point: 21 disabilities; 4% reservation in government jobs; accessibility mandates
SC/ST
Key Legislation/Provision: SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 · Critical Point: Special courts; non-bailable offences; 2018 amendment reversed dilution by SC
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Governance and Public Policy — General Studies Paper I · 12 cards
Good Governance
refers to the process of decision-making and implementation that is participatory, consensus-oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective, equitable, and follows the rule of law.
E-Governance
is the use of ICT to deliver government services, exchange information, and integrate various stand-alone systems between Government-to-Citizen (G2C), Government-to-Business (G2B), Government-to-Government (G2G), and Government-to-Employee (G2E).
Citizen Charter
is a written, voluntary declaration by a service provider about the standards of service delivery, timelines, grievance redressal mechanisms, and the commitment to citizens—it is NOT legally enforceable.
Right to Information (RTI)
is a fundamental right derived from Article 19(1)(a) that empowers citizens to seek information from public authorities, promoting transparency and reducing corruption.
Accountability
means answerability of public officials for their actions and decisions—it can be horizontal (between institutions) or vertical (citizens holding government accountable).
Transparency
refers to the openness in government functioning where information is freely available and accessible to those affected by decisions.
Social Audit
is a process where beneficiaries and stakeholders examine government programmes to ensure proper implementation—mandated under MGNREGA.
Sevottam Model
is a framework for improving public service delivery through Citizen's Charter, Public Grievance Redressal, and Service Delivery Capability.
Enacted
15 June 2005; came into force 12 October 2005
Covers
All constitutional authorities, bodies owned/controlled/substantially financed by government
Exempted
Intelligence and security organisations in Second Schedule (RAW, IB, etc.) — but information on corruption and human rights violations must be provided
Application fee
₹10 (no fee for BPL applicants)
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