UPTET flashcards
200 cards from 17 fact-checked topic notes · English
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Assessment for vs Assessment of Learning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 11 cards
- Assessment for Learning (Formative)
- is process-oriented; it happens continuously and aims to identify learning gaps so teachers can adjust instruction immediately.
- Assessment of Learning (Summative)
- is product-oriented; it happens at fixed intervals (term-end, year-end) and aims to certify what students have achieved.
- Purpose
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Improve learning · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): Measure achievement
- Timing
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): During instruction · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): After instruction
- Frequency
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Continuous · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): Periodic (term/year-end)
- Feedback
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Immediate, descriptive · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): Delayed, evaluative (grades)
- Stakes
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Low · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): High
- Focus
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Process · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): Product
- Examples
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Oral questions, quizzes, observation, peer review, self-assessment · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): Annual exams, unit tests, board exams
- Teacher role
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Facilitator · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): Evaluator
- Student role
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative): Active partner · Assessment OF Learning (Summative): Passive recipient
Child Development — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Development vs Growth
- Growth refers to quantitative changes (height, weight), while development includes qualitative changes (thinking ability, emotional regulation). Development is broader and subsumes growth.
- Development is continuous and sequential
- Children progress through predictable stages—standing before walking, babbling before speaking. No stage can be skipped, though pace varies across individuals.
- Cephalocaudal principle
- Development proceeds from head to toe. Infants gain control of head movements before leg movements.
- Proximodistal principle
- Development moves from the centre of the body outward. Trunk control develops before finger dexterity.
- Individual differences are universal
- No two children develop identically. Heredity, environment, nutrition, and experiences create unique developmental trajectories.
- Development is multidimensional and interrelated
- Physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral domains influence each other. A malnourished child may show cognitive delays; an emotionally stressed child may struggle socially.
- Critical and sensitive periods
- Certain abilities develop optimally during specific windows (e.g., language acquisition is easiest before age 7). Missing these periods makes learning harder, not impossible.
- Nature and nurture interact
- Heredity sets potential; environment determines how much of that potential is realised. A child with genetic aptitude for music still needs exposure and practice.
- Cephalocaudal
- Head-to-toe direction of motor development
- Proximodistal
- Centre-to-periphery direction (trunk → limbs → fingers)
- General to Specific
- Gross movements precede fine movements
- Continuous Process
- Development never stops; it is lifelong
Thorndike's Connectionism — Child Development and Pedagogy · 10 cards
- Connectionism (S-R Bond Theory)
- Learning is the establishment of neural connections between a stimulus (S) and a response (R). The stronger the bond, the more likely the response will occur when the stimulus is presented.
- Trial and Error Learning
- Organisms learn by trying various responses and gradually eliminating incorrect ones until the correct response is discovered. No prior reasoning or insight is involved.
- Puzzle Box Experiment
- Thorndike placed hungry cats in a box with food outside. Cats made random movements until accidentally pressing a lever that opened the door. Over repeated trials, the time taken to escape decreased—demonstrating learning through trial and error.
- Learning Curve
- Thorndike plotted time taken against number of trials. The curve showed a gradual, negatively accelerated decline—initial rapid improvement followed by slower gains.
- Primary Laws of Learning
- Law of Readiness, Law of Exercise, and Law of Effect form the core of Thorndike's theory.
- Subsidiary Laws
- Law of Multiple Response, Law of Set or Attitude, Law of Selective Response, Law of Analogy, and Law of Associative Shifting supplement the primary laws.
- Mechanical Nature of Learning
- Thorndike viewed learning as mechanical and automatic, not dependent on consciousness or understanding.
- Law of Readiness
- When a learner is prepared (physically, mentally, emotionally) to act, acting gives satisfaction; being forced to act when unready or being prevented from acting when ready causes annoyance.
- Law of Exercise
- Connections are strengthened through use (Law of Use) and weakened through disuse (Law of Disuse). Practice makes S-R bonds stronger.
- Law of Effect
- Responses followed by satisfaction (reward) are strengthened; responses followed by discomfort (punishment) are weakened. This is Thorndike's most important law.
Learning Theories and Pedagogy — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Behaviourism
- views learning as observable changes in behaviour resulting from stimulus-response associations; the learner is relatively passive, and the environment shapes learning through reinforcement or punishment.
- Cognitivism
- focuses on internal mental processes—how learners perceive, organise, store, and retrieve information; learning is about restructuring mental schemas.
- Constructivism
- holds that learners actively build knowledge by interacting with their environment; the teacher is a facilitator, not a transmitter.
- Social learning
- emphasises that children learn by observing and imitating models; cognitive processes mediate between stimulus and response.
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- is the gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with guidance—effective teaching targets this zone.
- Scaffolding
- refers to temporary support provided by a teacher or peer that is gradually removed as the learner gains competence.
- Reinforcement
- (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behaviour; punishment decreases it. Timing and consistency matter.
- Transfer of learning
- occurs when knowledge or skills acquired in one context are applied to new situations—can be positive, negative, or zero.
- Classical Conditioning
- Proponent: Ivan Pavlov · Core Idea: Learning through association of neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus · Classroom Implication: Creating positive classroom atmosphere; pairing difficult subjects with pleasant experiences
- Connectionism (Trial & Error)
- Proponent: E.L. Thorndike · Core Idea: Learning through S-R bonds; Laws of Readiness, Exercise, Effect · Classroom Implication: Practice and drill; immediate feedback; ensure learner readiness
- Operant Conditioning
- Proponent: B.F. Skinner · Core Idea: Behaviour shaped by consequences (reinforcement/punishment) · Classroom Implication: Token economy; praise; programmed instruction
- Cognitive Development
- Proponent: Jean Piaget · Core Idea: Stage-wise development; assimilation and accommodation of schemas · Classroom Implication: Age-appropriate activities; concrete materials before abstract concepts
Pavlov's Classical Conditioning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Classical conditioning is learning through association
- A neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a response after being repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally causes that response.
- Pavlov's famous experiment
- Pavlov noticed dogs salivated not just when food was presented, but also when they heard the footsteps of the lab assistant bringing food. He systematically paired a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (natural stimulus) until the bell alone produced salivation.
- The response in classical conditioning is involuntary/reflexive
- Unlike operant conditioning where behaviour is voluntary, classical conditioning deals with automatic responses like salivation, fear, or emotional reactions.
- Contiguity is essential
- The neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus must be presented close together in time for association to form. Greater time gaps weaken conditioning.
- Conditioning can explain emotional learning
- Children's attitudes toward school, teachers, or subjects often develop through classical conditioning rather than deliberate teaching.
- Extinction occurs when association breaks
- If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response gradually weakens and disappears.
- Spontaneous recovery
- After extinction, the conditioned response may briefly reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after a rest period.
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
- A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food)
- Unconditioned Response (UCR)
- The natural, unlearned reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivation to food)
- Neutral Stimulus (NS)
- A stimulus that initially produces no specific response (e.g., bell before conditioning)
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- The previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing with UCS, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., bell after conditioning)
- Conditioned Response (CR)
- The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to bell)
Influence of Heredity and Environment — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Heredity
- refers to the biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genes located on chromosomes. It sets the potential or upper limit for many characteristics.
- Environment
- includes all external influences acting on the child after conception—family atmosphere, nutrition, schooling, peer interaction, cultural norms, media, and socio-economic status.
- Nature vs Nurture
- is not an either/or dichotomy; modern psychology views development as an interaction of both. Genes may predispose, but environment actualises.
- Genotype
- is the genetic makeup; phenotype is the observable trait that emerges from genotype-environment interaction (e.g., a tall genotype needs adequate nutrition to express full height).
- Critical/Sensitive periods
- Certain environmental inputs (language exposure, attachment) have maximum impact during specific developmental windows—a key reason early childhood education matters.
- Maturation
- is the unfolding of genetically programmed changes (e.g., puberty) relatively independent of experience, whereas learning requires environmental stimulation.
- Co-action principle
- Heredity provides the blueprint; environment supplies the building materials and construction conditions. Neither can produce development alone.
- Eye/hair colour
- Primarily Hereditary: ✔ · Primarily Environmental: —
- Blood group
- Primarily Hereditary: ✔ · Primarily Environmental: —
- Basic body structure
- Primarily Hereditary: ✔ · Primarily Environmental: —
- Intelligence potential
- Primarily Hereditary: ✔ (sets range) · Primarily Environmental: ✔ (determines where in range)
- Language spoken
- Primarily Hereditary: — · Primarily Environmental: ✔
Talented, Creative and Specially-abled Learners — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Giftedness vs Creativity
- Gifted children show high intellectual ability (typically IQ above 130), while creative children demonstrate originality, fluency, flexibility and elaboration in thinking. A child may be gifted but not creative, or creative but not academically gifted.
- Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
- Talent manifests in different domains—linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. A teacher must recognise that academic brilliance is only one form of giftedness.
- Renzulli's Three-Ring Conception
- Giftedness emerges from the intersection of above-average ability, task commitment (motivation), and creativity. All three rings must overlap for gifted behaviour to manifest.
- Characteristics of Gifted Learners
- Early language development, exceptional memory, curiosity, preference for complexity, heightened sensitivity, asynchronous development (intellectual age exceeds emotional age), and sometimes social isolation.
- Characteristics of Creative Learners
- Divergent thinking, risk-taking, non-conformity, tolerance for ambiguity, preference for open-ended tasks, and sometimes perceived as disruptive due to questioning authority.
- Specially-abled Learners
- This broader category includes children with physical, sensory, intellectual, or learning disabilities who may also possess exceptional talents—sometimes called "twice exceptional" (2e) learners.
- Underachievement in Gifted Students
- Many gifted children perform below potential due to lack of challenge, peer pressure, or emotional issues. Teachers must distinguish between low ability and low motivation.
- Differentiated Instruction
- Modifying content, process, product, and learning environment based on learner readiness, interest, and learning profile—the core pedagogical response to diverse abilities.
- IQ criterion for giftedness
- Generally IQ ≥ 130 (top 2–3% of population)
- Guilford's divergent thinking
- Fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration
- Torrance Tests
- Most widely used creativity assessment tool
- Acceleration
- Moving gifted students faster through curriculum
Skinner's Operant Conditioning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Operant behaviour
- Voluntary actions that "operate" on the environment to produce consequences; the organism acts first, then experiences the outcome.
- Reinforcement
- Any consequence that increases the probability of a behaviour being repeated. This is the central mechanism of operant conditioning.
- Punishment
- Any consequence that decreases the probability of a behaviour being repeated.
- Positive vs Negative
- "Positive" means adding a stimulus; "Negative" means removing a stimulus. These terms do not mean good or bad.
- Skinner Box (Operant Chamber)
- Experimental apparatus where rats or pigeons learned to press levers or peck discs to receive food pellets — demonstrated how consequences shape behaviour.
- Shaping
- Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behaviour; used when the target behaviour is complex or does not occur naturally.
- Extinction
- When reinforcement is withdrawn, the behaviour gradually decreases and eventually stops.
- Schedules of Reinforcement
- Patterns of delivering reinforcement (continuous vs intermittent) that affect how quickly behaviour is learned and how resistant it is to extinction.
- Positive Reinforcement
- Definition: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour · Classroom Example: Giving stars, praise, or extra playtime for good work
- Negative Reinforcement
- Definition: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour · Classroom Example: Exempting a student from homework if classwork is completed well
- Positive Punishment
- Definition: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour · Classroom Example: Giving extra assignment for misbehaviour
- Negative Punishment
- Definition: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour · Classroom Example: Taking away recess time for disruption
Constructivism — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Child as Active Learner
- Children are not empty vessels to be filled with information. They actively construct meaning by connecting new experiences to what they already know.
- Prior Knowledge Matters
- Learning always builds on existing mental structures. A child who has never seen a cow will struggle to understand "mammals" abstractly.
- Learning Through Experience
- Direct, hands-on experience is more effective than passive listening. A child learns fractions better by cutting an apple than by memorising definitions.
- Role of Disequilibrium (Piaget)
- When new information conflicts with existing understanding, it creates cognitive conflict. Resolving this conflict leads to genuine learning.
- Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
- The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with guidance. Effective teaching targets this zone.
- Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
- Temporary support provided by teachers, parents, or peers that is gradually removed as the child gains competence.
- Teacher as Facilitator
- The teacher's role shifts from "knowledge giver" to "guide" who creates environments for discovery and supports learners without giving direct answers.
- Social Interaction is Essential
- For Vygotsky, discussion, collaboration, and dialogue with others are not just helpful—they are necessary for cognitive development.
- Focus
- Piaget (Cognitive Constructivism): Individual cognitive development · Vygotsky (Social Constructivism): Social and cultural influences
- Knowledge Source
- Piaget (Cognitive Constructivism): Constructed through personal experience · Vygotsky (Social Constructivism): Constructed through social interaction
- Key Concept
- Piaget (Cognitive Constructivism): Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation · Vygotsky (Social Constructivism): Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- Role of Language
- Piaget (Cognitive Constructivism): Follows cognitive development · Vygotsky (Social Constructivism): Drives cognitive development
Observational/Social Learning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Observational Learning (Modelling)
- Learning that occurs by observing a model's behaviour and its consequences, without the learner performing the behaviour or receiving direct reinforcement at that moment.
- Model
- Any person whose behaviour is observed and potentially imitated—parents, teachers, peers, media characters or even symbolic models in books.
- Vicarious Reinforcement
- When the learner sees the model being rewarded, the learner becomes more likely to imitate that behaviour. Conversely, vicarious punishment discourages imitation.
- Reciprocal Determinism
- Bandura's view that behaviour, personal factors (cognition, emotions) and the environment continuously influence one another in a three-way interaction.
- Self-Efficacy
- A person's belief in their own capability to perform a specific task successfully. High self-efficacy leads to effort and persistence; low self-efficacy leads to avoidance.
- Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)
- Children who watched an adult behave aggressively toward an inflatable Bobo doll later imitated that aggression, demonstrating that behaviour can be learned purely by observation.
- Distinction from Behaviourism
- Unlike Skinner's operant conditioning, Bandura showed that reinforcement is not always necessary for learning; it mainly affects performance (whether the learned behaviour is displayed).
- Four Processes of Modelling
- Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation
- Attention
- Learner must notice and focus on the model's behaviour
- Retention
- Learner must encode and remember the behaviour (mental imagery, verbal coding)
- Reproduction
- Learner must have physical/cognitive ability to replicate the behaviour
- Motivation
- Learner must have a reason (reinforcement, self-efficacy) to perform the behaviour
Vygotsky's Socio-cultural Theory — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Social origin of cognition
- Higher mental functions (logical thinking, problem-solving, voluntary attention) first appear on the social plane (between people) before becoming internalised on the individual plane.
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- The gap between what a child can do independently (actual development level) and what the child can achieve with guidance from a more capable person (potential development level). Learning happens most effectively within this zone.
- More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
- Any person who has a higher ability level than the learner for a particular task—could be a teacher, parent, peer, or even a computer program.
- Scaffolding
- Temporary, adjustable support provided by the MKO to help the learner accomplish tasks within the ZPD. As competence grows, support is gradually withdrawn (fading).
- Social mediation of learning
- Knowledge is co-constructed through dialogue and social interaction; the teacher mediates between the child and the cultural knowledge to be learned.
- Role of language
- Language is the primary psychological tool. It begins as external speech (social), becomes egocentric/private speech (self-directed talk while solving problems), and finally transforms into inner speech (silent verbal thought).
- Cultural tools
- Every culture transmits cognitive tools—language, number systems, writing, art—that shape how children think and learn.
- ZPD
- Distance between independent and assisted performance levels.
- MKO
- Person or agent with more skill/knowledge on the task at hand.
- Private speech
- Self-talk used by children to regulate their own thinking.
- Internalisation
- Process by which external social activity becomes internal mental function.
- Mediation
- Use of cultural tools (language, symbols) to bridge learner and knowledge.
Memory, Forgetting and Transfer — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Memory is a three-stage process
- Encoding (receiving information) → Storage (retaining it) → Retrieval (recalling when needed). Failure at any stage causes forgetting.
- Sensory memory
- holds raw sensory data for less than a second; only attended information moves to short-term memory.
- Short-term memory (STM)
- has limited capacity (7±2 items) and duration (15-30 seconds without rehearsal). It is the "working space" for thinking.
- Long-term memory (LTM)
- has virtually unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime. Information here is organised meaningfully—hence meaningful learning beats rote learning.
- Forgetting is not always failure
- it can be adaptive, clearing irrelevant information. However, in classrooms, we focus on preventing unwanted forgetting.
- Transfer of learning
- occurs when learning in one situation influences performance in another. Positive transfer aids learning; negative transfer hinders it.
- Identical elements theory (Thorndike)
- Transfer depends on common elements between old and new tasks—teaching for transfer means highlighting similarities.
- Metacognition
- awareness of one's own memory processes—helps learners use strategies like rehearsal, chunking and mnemonics effectively.
- Sensory memory duration
- < 1 second (iconic for vision, echoic for hearing)
- STM capacity
- 7 ± 2 items (Miller's magic number)
- STM duration
- 15–30 seconds without rehearsal
- Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
- Maximum forgetting occurs within first hour; retention flattens over time
Bruner's Theory of Cognitive Growth — Child Development and Pedagogy · 11 cards
- Three Modes of Representation
- Bruner identified enactive, iconic, and symbolic as the three ways humans encode and store knowledge. These develop in sequence but all three remain usable in adulthood.
- Enactive Mode (0–1 year onwards)
- Knowledge is stored through motor responses and physical actions. A child "knows" a rattle by shaking it. Learning happens by doing.
- Iconic Mode (1–6 years onwards)
- Knowledge is stored as mental images or pictures. A child can visualize a ball without needing to hold it. Learning happens through observation and imagery.
- Symbolic Mode (7 years onwards)
- Knowledge is stored through symbols—language, words, numbers, and notation. A child can understand "ball" as a word representing the object. Learning happens through abstract reasoning.
- Spiral Curriculum
- Bruner proposed that subjects should be introduced early in simplified form (using enactive/iconic modes) and revisited repeatedly at increasing complexity (moving toward symbolic). This contrasts with waiting until children are "ready."
- Discovery Learning
- Bruner believed children learn best when they discover concepts themselves through guided exploration, rather than being told information directly.
- Scaffolding
- The term was coined by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), and Bruner popularized the idea that teachers provide temporary support structures that are gradually removed as the learner becomes competent.
- Readiness
- Bruner famously stated that "any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development"—rejecting the idea that children must wait for biological readiness.
- Enactive
- Age Begins: 0–1 year · How Knowledge is Stored: Through actions/muscles · Classroom Example: Counting on fingers, manipulating blocks
- Iconic
- Age Begins: 1–6 years · How Knowledge is Stored: Through images/pictures · Classroom Example: Using diagrams, charts, drawings
- Symbolic
- Age Begins: 7+ years · How Knowledge is Stored: Through symbols/language · Classroom Example: Reading text, using mathematical notation
Individual Differences among Learners — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Nature of Individual Differences
- Every learner is unique in cognitive abilities, emotional responses, physical development, social behaviour, and learning pace. These differences are natural, universal, and should be respected rather than eliminated.
- Heredity vs Environment
- Individual differences arise from the interplay of genetic inheritance (intelligence potential, physical traits) and environmental factors (family, culture, schooling, nutrition). Neither alone determines development.
- Language Diversity
- Children come from different linguistic backgrounds—Hindi, Urdu, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, etc. Mother tongue influences thinking patterns, comprehension speed, and classroom participation.
- Socio-cultural Differences
- Caste, religion, and economic background shape a child's worldview, values, self-esteem, and access to educational resources. Teachers must avoid stereotyping and ensure equal opportunities.
- Gender Differences
- While biological differences exist, most observed gender differences in classrooms are socially constructed. Gender bias in expectations, curriculum, and teacher behaviour must be consciously addressed.
- Ability and Aptitude
- Ability refers to present capacity to perform a task; aptitude indicates potential to acquire skills in future. Children vary in verbal, numerical, spatial, musical, and other aptitudes (Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences).
- Learning Styles
- Children learn differently—visual, auditory, or kinesthetic preferences. Effective teaching accommodates multiple modalities.
- Interest and Motivation
- Intrinsic interests vary based on personality, experiences, and cultural exposure. A motivated learner performs better regardless of measured intelligence.
- Language
- Description: Mother tongue, bilingualism, multilingual exposure · Educational Implication: Use multilingual approach; value home language
- Caste
- Description: SC/ST/OBC backgrounds; historical marginalisation · Educational Implication: Ensure dignity; counter discrimination; affirmative support
- Gender
- Description: Biological sex and social gender roles · Educational Implication: Challenge stereotypes; equal participation; gender-sensitive pedagogy
- Religion
- Description: Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Christian, etc. · Educational Implication: Secular teaching; respect all festivals; avoid religious bias
Personality and Adjustment — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Personality
- is the unique, relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that distinguishes one individual from another. It develops through the interaction of heredity and environment.
- Adjustment
- refers to the process by which an individual attempts to cope with demands, pressures, and challenges of the environment while maintaining psychological equilibrium.
- Mental health
- is not merely the absence of mental illness but a state of well-being where the individual realises their abilities, can cope with normal stresses, works productively, and contributes to the community.
- Defence mechanisms
- are unconscious psychological strategies used to protect oneself from anxiety and maintain self-image; healthy in moderation but problematic when overused.
- Maladjustment
- occurs when an individual consistently fails to meet environmental demands or internal needs, leading to persistent emotional disturbance, behavioural problems, or social difficulties.
- Self-concept
- is the perception one holds about oneself; positive self-concept correlates strongly with good adjustment and academic success in children.
- Temperament
- refers to inborn behavioural tendencies (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up) that form the biological foundation of personality development.
- Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
- Personality has three structures: Id (pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle), Superego (moral principle). Development occurs through psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital).
- Allport's Trait Theory
- Personality consists of cardinal, central, and secondary traits. Emphasised uniqueness of individuals.
- Eysenck's Type Theory
- Two main dimensions: Introversion-Extroversion and Neuroticism-Stability. Later added Psychoticism.
- Big Five Model (OCEAN)
- Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism—five broad personality factors.
- Carl Rogers (Humanistic)
- Self-actualisation as the goal; importance of unconditional positive regard for healthy personality.
Language and Thought — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Language as a tool for thought
- Language is not just for communication—it helps children organise ideas, solve problems, and regulate their own behaviour. A child talking themselves through a puzzle is using language to think.
- Inner speech (Vygotsky)
- External speech gradually becomes internalised as "inner speech"—the silent verbal thinking adults use. This transition (ages 3-7) is crucial for self-regulation and abstract reasoning.
- Egocentric speech
- Young children often talk aloud to themselves while playing. Piaget viewed this as immature and non-social; Vygotsky saw it as a developmental bridge to inner speech and cognitive control.
- Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis)
- The language we speak influences how we perceive and categorise the world. Strong version: language determines thought. Weak version: language influences thought without fully determining it.
- Cognitive prerequisites for language
- Piaget argued children must first develop certain cognitive abilities (object permanence, symbolic function) before meaningful language can emerge.
- Social origins of thought
- Vygotsky emphasised that thought develops through social interaction first, then becomes internalised—language is the primary medium of this social learning.
- Bilingualism and cognitive flexibility
- Children who learn multiple languages often show enhanced cognitive flexibility, better attention control, and stronger metalinguistic awareness.
- Piaget
- Thought precedes and shapes language; language reflects cognitive development but does not drive it
- Vygotsky
- Language and thought have separate origins but merge around age 2; thereafter, language drives cognitive development
- Bruner
- Language is a tool that amplifies cognitive abilities; symbolic mode of representation depends on language
- Chomsky
- Language acquisition has an innate biological basis (LAD); thought and language are distinct mental faculties
- Sapir-Whorf
- Language shapes and possibly determines thought patterns and worldview