TN TET flashcards
204 cards from 18 fact-checked topic notes · English
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Formative and Summative Assessment — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative)
- Ongoing assessment during instruction to monitor student progress and adjust teaching. The goal is improvement, not grading.
- Assessment OF Learning (Summative)
- Assessment at the end of a unit, term, or course to evaluate what students have learned. The goal is certification or grading.
- Feedback Loop
- Formative assessment creates a continuous feedback loop — teacher observes → identifies gaps → modifies instruction → student improves.
- Diagnostic Function
- Formative assessment often serves a diagnostic purpose, identifying specific learning difficulties before they become permanent.
- Stakeholder Focus
- Formative assessment primarily serves teachers and students (to improve); summative assessment serves parents, administrators, and society (to certify).
- Low-Stakes vs High-Stakes
- Formative assessments are typically low-stakes (no major consequences); summative assessments are high-stakes (affect promotion, certification).
- NCF 2005 Emphasis
- The National Curriculum Framework 2005 strongly advocates shifting focus from summative to formative assessment to reduce exam anxiety and promote holistic development.
- CCE Integration
- Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) combines both types — continuous (formative) and comprehensive (covering all domains, scholastic and co-scholastic).
- Purpose
- Formative Assessment: Improve learning · Summative Assessment: Judge/certify learning
- Timing
- Formative Assessment: During instruction · Summative Assessment: End of instruction
- Frequency
- Formative Assessment: Continuous, frequent · Summative Assessment: Periodic (term-end, annual)
- Feedback
- Formative Assessment: Immediate, detailed · Summative Assessment: Delayed, often just grades
Child Development and Educational Psychology — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Growth vs Development
- Growth is quantitative (height, weight, size) and measurable; development is qualitative (skills, behaviour, cognition) and functional. Growth stops at maturity; development continues lifelong.
- Development is multidimensional
- It occurs simultaneously across physical, cognitive, emotional, social, language, and moral domains—none operates in isolation.
- Cephalocaudal principle
- Development proceeds from head to toe. Infants control head movements before leg movements.
- Proximodistal principle
- Development proceeds from centre (trunk) to periphery (fingers, toes). Children gain arm control before fine finger control.
- Individual differences are universal
- No two children develop identically, even twins. Teachers must recognise and accommodate this diversity.
- Heredity sets limits; environment determines actual achievement
- Genes provide potential (height ceiling, intelligence range); nutrition, stimulation, and opportunities determine where within that range a child lands.
- Critical and sensitive periods
- Certain abilities develop optimally during specific windows. Language acquisition is easiest before age 7; missing this window makes later learning harder, not impossible.
- Development is continuous yet shows spurts
- While development never stops, it accelerates during infancy and adolescence, creating visible "jumps" in abilities.
- Growth
- Physical, quantitative, stops at maturity, measurable in centimetres/kilograms
- Development
- Qualitative, functional, lifelong, involves skills and behaviour
- Maturation
- Biological unfolding of genetic potential independent of learning
- Learning
- Change in behaviour due to experience and practice
Basis of Differences — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Individual differences are natural and valuable
- No two children are identical; diversity enriches classroom learning and prepares students for real-world pluralistic society.
- Language as a learning barrier
- Children whose home language differs from the medium of instruction face significant disadvantages in comprehension, expression and assessment.
- Caste-based marginalisation
- SC/ST children often face discrimination, lower expectations from teachers, and lack of representation in curriculum content, affecting self-esteem and participation.
- Gender as socially constructed
- Differences between boys and girls in classrooms are largely shaped by societal expectations, not innate ability. Gender stereotypes limit aspirations and participation.
- Community and regional identity
- Rural/urban, tribal, migrant and regional community backgrounds create different prior knowledge, values and learning styles that teachers must acknowledge.
- Religious diversity
- Children from minority religions may feel excluded when curriculum or school practices assume majoritarian norms. Secular education requires sensitivity to all faiths.
- Ability differences span a spectrum
- From gifted children to those with learning disabilities, physical challenges or intellectual differences — each requires differentiated instruction.
- Intersectionality matters
- A child may simultaneously belong to multiple marginalised categories (e.g., a Dalit girl with a disability), compounding educational disadvantage.
- Language
- Multilingual classrooms need mother-tongue support; three-language formula in NEP
- Caste
- Constitutional provisions (Articles 15, 17, 46) mandate equality; reservation in education
- Gender
- UDISE data shows improving female enrolment but persistent dropout at secondary level
- Community
- Tribal children have distinct cultural knowledge; migrant children face discontinuous schooling
How Children Think and Learn — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Children as active learners
- Children are not empty vessels to be filled but active agents who construct meaning through exploration, questioning, and hands-on experience. They learn best when engaged, not when passively listening.
- Prior knowledge matters
- Every child enters the classroom with existing ideas, beliefs, and experiences. New learning builds upon (or sometimes conflicts with) this prior knowledge. Effective teaching connects new concepts to what children already know.
- Learning is social
- Children learn through interaction with peers, teachers, family, and community. Dialogue, collaboration, and discussion deepen understanding more than isolated study.
- Children think differently from adults
- Child cognition is qualitatively different, not just quantitatively less. A 7-year-old does not simply know less than an adult—they process information, categorise, and reason in fundamentally different ways.
- Errors are learning opportunities
- Mistakes reveal how a child is thinking. Rather than being corrected immediately, errors should be explored to understand the child's reasoning process.
- Multiple pathways to understanding
- Children learn through varied modes—visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and social. No single method works for all learners.
- Intrinsic motivation drives deep learning
- Children naturally curious about their world learn more effectively than those driven solely by external rewards like marks or praise.
- Context shapes cognition
- Learning is situated—children understand concepts better when taught in meaningful, real-life contexts rather than abstract isolation.
- Constructivism
- Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted; learners build understanding actively
- Schema
- Mental frameworks that organise knowledge; new information either fits existing schemas or requires schema modification
- Assimilation
- Fitting new information into existing schemas
- Accommodation
- Modifying schemas when new information cannot fit existing structures
Behaviourism — Child Development and Pedagogy · 10 cards
- Learning is behaviour change
- Behaviourists define learning as a relatively permanent change in observable behaviour resulting from experience—not internal thoughts or feelings.
- Stimulus-Response (S-R) connection
- All behaviour can be explained as responses to environmental stimuli; learning strengthens these S-R bonds.
- Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
- Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggering the same response on its own.
- Operant conditioning (Skinner)
- Behaviour is shaped by its consequences—reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it.
- Connectionism (Thorndike)
- Learning is the formation of connections between stimuli and responses through trial and error, governed by specific laws.
- Role of environment
- Behaviourism emphasises that the external environment, not heredity or internal drives, primarily determines learning.
- Teacher as controller
- In behaviourist classrooms, the teacher controls stimuli, provides reinforcement, and shapes student behaviour systematically.
- Pavlov
- Experiment: Dog salivation experiment · Core Principle: Classical conditioning—learning through association
- Skinner
- Experiment: Skinner Box (rats/pigeons) · Core Principle: Operant conditioning—learning through consequences
- Thorndike
- Experiment: Puzzle Box (cats) · Core Principle: Trial-and-error learning; Law of Effect
Children with Learning Difficulties — Child Development and Pedagogy · 10 cards
- Learning Difficulty vs Intellectual Disability
- Learning difficulties are specific processing deficits in children with normal intelligence; intellectual disability involves below-average general cognitive functioning. Never confuse the two.
- Neurological Basis
- Learning difficulties arise from differences in brain structure and function—they are not caused by laziness, poor teaching, or lack of effort. This understanding prevents blame and promotes appropriate support.
- Discrepancy Model
- A child shows a significant gap between their intellectual potential (IQ) and actual academic achievement in specific areas. High capability + specific academic failure = probable learning difficulty.
- Comorbidity is Common
- Many children have overlapping conditions—a child with dyslexia may also have ADHD or dysgraphia. Teachers must watch for multiple signs.
- Early Identification Matters
- The earlier a learning difficulty is identified, the better the intervention outcomes. Primary teachers play a critical detection role.
- Strength-Based Approach
- Focus on what the child can do well, not just deficits. Many children with learning difficulties excel in creative, spatial, or practical domains.
- Dyslexia
- Core Deficit: Reading and language processing · Key Indicators: Letter/word reversal (b/d, was/saw), slow reading, poor spelling, difficulty rhyming
- Dysgraphia
- Core Deficit: Written expression · Key Indicators: Illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, difficulty organising thoughts on paper, slow writing speed
- Dyscalculia
- Core Deficit: Mathematical reasoning · Key Indicators: Difficulty with number sense, counting, place value, telling time, remembering math facts
- ADHD
- Core Deficit: Attention regulation and impulse control · Key Indicators: Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, difficulty following instructions, easily distracted
Measurement of Intelligence — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
- is a numerical score derived from standardised tests designed to measure cognitive ability relative to age peers. It is not a fixed trait but can be influenced by environment, education and opportunity.
- Mental Age (MA)
- refers to the level of intellectual functioning compared to the average performance of children at various ages. A child with MA of 10 performs like an average 10-year-old regardless of actual age.
- Chronological Age (CA)
- is the actual age of a child in years and months, used as the baseline for calculating IQ in ratio-based formulas.
- Normal Distribution
- IQ scores follow a bell curve with mean 100 and standard deviation 15-16. About 68% of people score between 85-115, and 95% score between 70-130.
- Standardisation
- means tests are administered under uniform conditions with established norms, ensuring scores can be compared meaningfully across individuals and groups.
- Reliability
- refers to the consistency of test results — a reliable test produces similar scores when repeated under similar conditions.
- Validity
- indicates whether a test actually measures what it claims to measure — true intelligence rather than just learned knowledge or cultural familiarity.
- Culture-fair tests
- attempt to minimise the influence of language, education and cultural background on intelligence measurement.
- Binet-Simon Scale
- Developer: Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon (1905) · Type: Individual, verbal
- Stanford-Binet Test
- Developer: Lewis Terman (1916) · Type: Individual, verbal
- WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)
- Developer: David Wechsler · Type: Individual, verbal + performance
- WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)
- Developer: David Wechsler · Type: Individual, verbal + performance
Learning Theories — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Behaviourism
- views learning as observable change in behaviour caused by external stimuli; the mind is a "black box" and internal processes are ignored.
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus alone triggers the response.
- Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
- states that behaviour is shaped by its consequences—reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it.
- Connectionism (Thorndike)
- proposes that learning is forming stimulus–response (S–R) bonds; his Laws of Readiness, Exercise and Effect guide drill-based instruction.
- Gestalt/Insight Learning (Köhler, Wertheimer)
- emphasises perception of the whole pattern; learners reorganise the field and suddenly "see" the solution (aha moment).
- Cognitive Development (Piaget)
- describes four universal stages; children actively construct knowledge through assimilation and accommodation of schemas.
- Socio-cultural Theory (Vygotsky)
- highlights social interaction and language; learning happens first on the social plane, then internally, within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
- Discovery Learning (Bruner)
- encourages learners to discover principles themselves; knowledge is represented enactively → iconically → symbolically.
- Constructivism
- is an umbrella view: learners build personal meaning from experience; the teacher is a facilitator, not a transmitter.
- Moral Development (Kohlberg)
- outlines three levels (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional) describing how moral reasoning matures.
- Ivan Pavlov
- Theory: Classical Conditioning · Central Idea: Learning through association of stimuli (dog-bell-salivation experiment)
- B. F. Skinner
- Theory: Operant Conditioning · Central Idea: Behaviour modified by reinforcement or punishment
Influence of Heredity and Environment — Child Development and Pedagogy · 11 cards
- Heredity
- refers to the biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genes. It sets the upper limit of what a child can potentially achieve—the "raw material" of development.
- Environment
- includes all external influences after conception—family, school, peers, culture, nutrition, and experiences. It determines how much of genetic potential actually gets realised.
- Nature vs Nurture
- is a false dichotomy in modern understanding. Development results from continuous interaction between genes and environment, not one or the other alone.
- Genotype
- is the genetic makeup inherited from parents; Phenotype is the observable characteristic that emerges from genotype-environment interaction.
- Critical periods
- are specific time windows when environmental stimulation is essential for normal development (e.g., language acquisition before age 7).
- Maturation
- refers to genetically programmed biological changes that unfold naturally given minimal environmental support (e.g., walking, puberty).
- Co-action principle
- Genes require environmental triggers to express themselves; environment needs genetic readiness to have an effect.
- Physical
- Primarily Influenced by Heredity: Eye colour, blood group, height potential, body structure, inherited diseases · Primarily Influenced by Environment: Actual height achieved, weight, physical fitness, nutrition-related health
- Cognitive
- Primarily Influenced by Heredity: Basic intelligence potential, specific learning disabilities tendency · Primarily Influenced by Environment: Language, knowledge, skills, academic achievement, reasoning development
- Personality
- Primarily Influenced by Heredity: Temperament, introversion/extroversion tendency · Primarily Influenced by Environment: Character, values, attitudes, habits, social behaviour
- Emotional
- Primarily Influenced by Heredity: Basic emotional reactivity · Primarily Influenced by Environment: Emotional regulation, coping strategies, emotional expression
Gifted and Talented Children — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Definition of Giftedness
- Children who demonstrate outstanding ability or potential in one or more domains—intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership, or specific academic fields. Giftedness is not limited to high IQ scores.
- Multi-dimensional Nature
- Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory reminds us that a child may be gifted in music, spatial reasoning, or interpersonal skills without excelling in verbal-linguistic tasks measured by standard tests.
- Difference between Gifted and Talented
- "Gifted" often refers to general intellectual ability; "Talented" refers to exceptional skill in a specific domain (dance, sports, mathematics). Both require differentiated support.
- Asynchronous Development
- Gifted children often show uneven development—a 7-year-old may reason like a 12-year-old but have the emotional maturity of their age. This mismatch causes frustration and social difficulties.
- Underachievement Paradox
- Without appropriate challenge, gifted learners may lose motivation, mask abilities to fit in socially, or develop behavioural issues. High ability does not guarantee high achievement.
- Twice-Exceptional (2e) Learners
- Some children are both gifted and have a learning difficulty (e.g., gifted with dyslexia). Their giftedness may mask the disability, or the disability may hide the giftedness.
- Inclusive, Not Elitist
- Differentiated strategies for gifted learners within regular classrooms align with inclusive education principles—every child learning at their optimal level.
- NCF 2005 stance
- Education must address diverse learner needs including gifted children; advocates flexible curriculum.
- Renzulli's Three-Ring Model
- Giftedness = intersection of Above-Average Ability + Creativity + Task Commitment.
- IQ threshold (traditional)
- IQ above 130 often used as cutoff, but modern views emphasise multiple criteria.
- Characteristics of gifted
- Curiosity, rapid learning, advanced vocabulary, intense focus, preference for complexity, sensitivity.
- Social-emotional issues
- Perfectionism, isolation, boredom, difficulty relating to age-peers, heightened sensitivity (Dabrowski's overexcitabilities).
Personality and Theories — Child Development and Pedagogy · 10 cards
- Personality
- is the dynamic organisation of psycho-physical systems within an individual that determines unique adjustment to the environment (Allport's definition).
- Type theories
- classify people into discrete, mutually exclusive categories—you belong to one type or another, with no middle ground.
- Trait theories
- view personality as a combination of continuous dimensions—everyone possesses all traits but in varying degrees.
- Self theories
- focus on how individuals perceive themselves and how this self-concept shapes behaviour and development.
- Nature vs Nurture in personality
- Both heredity (temperament, biological factors) and environment (family, culture, experiences) shape personality.
- Personality is relatively stable
- but not fixed—it can be modified through experiences, especially during childhood and adolescence.
- Teachers must understand personality
- to differentiate instruction, manage classroom behaviour and support holistic student development.
- Type Theory
- Key Theorists: Hippocrates, Sheldon, Jung, Kretschmer · Core Idea: People fit into distinct personality categories
- Trait Theory
- Key Theorists: Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, Big Five · Core Idea: Personality is a blend of multiple continuous traits
- Self Theory
- Key Theorists: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow · Core Idea: Self-concept and self-actualisation drive personality
Creativity — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Definition of Creativity
- Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, solutions, or products that are both novel (new/original) and appropriate (useful/relevant to the context). It is not limited to art—it applies to science, mathematics, language, and everyday problem-solving.
- Creativity vs Intelligence
- Intelligence focuses on convergent thinking (finding the single correct answer), while creativity involves divergent thinking (generating multiple possible answers). A child can be highly intelligent but not creative, and vice versa.
- Guilford's Structure of Intellect
- J.P. Guilford distinguished divergent production (generating alternatives) from convergent production. His model placed creativity within the intellectual operations category, making it measurable and teachable.
- Torrance's Four Components
- E. Paul Torrance identified four dimensions of creative thinking—fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. These form the basis for most creativity assessments.
- Stages of Creative Process (Wallas Model)
- Graham Wallas proposed four stages—Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, and Verification. Understanding this sequence helps teachers design activities that allow time for each phase.
- Creativity is Developable
- Unlike fixed traits, creativity can be nurtured. A supportive environment, freedom to explore, and tolerance for mistakes enhance creative potential in all children.
- Domain-Specific vs Domain-General
- Some researchers argue creativity is general (transfers across subjects), while others see it as domain-specific (a child creative in music may not be creative in mathematics). For teaching purposes, assume both possibilities and expose children to varied domains.
- Fluency
- Number of ideas generated; more ideas = higher fluency
- Flexibility
- Variety of categories or approaches used
- Originality
- Uniqueness or rarity of ideas compared to peers
- Elaboration
- Ability to add details and develop an idea fully
- Threshold Theory
- Creativity requires moderate intelligence (IQ ~120); beyond that, correlation weakens
Cognition and Emotion — Child Development and Pedagogy · 8 cards
- Cognition
- refers to mental processes including perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and language—essentially, how we acquire, process, and use knowledge.
- Emotion
- refers to complex psychological states involving subjective experience, physiological arousal, and behavioural expression—feelings like joy, fear, anger, and curiosity that influence our actions.
- Bidirectional relationship
- Emotions influence cognition (fear can block thinking), and cognition influences emotions (thinking about failure can cause anxiety). Neither operates in isolation during learning.
- Emotional regulation
- is the ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences appropriately—a skill that develops through childhood and directly affects classroom behaviour and learning outcomes.
- Affective filter hypothesis
- (Krashen): High anxiety, low motivation, or low self-esteem create a mental block that prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device. This applies beyond language to all learning.
- Emotional intelligence
- (Goleman): The capacity to recognise, understand, and manage one's own emotions and those of others—increasingly recognised as essential for academic and life success.
- Mood-dependent memory
- People recall information better when their current mood matches the mood they were in during learning—positive learning environments create positive retrieval conditions.
- Amygdala hijack
- When strong negative emotions activate the amygdala, it can override the prefrontal cortex (reasoning centre), making logical thinking temporarily impossible—explains why stressed children cannot focus.
Individual Differences and Personality — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Individual differences
- refer to variations among learners in physical, cognitive, emotional, social and personality characteristics that affect how they learn.
- Heredity vs environment
- debate: Heredity sets potential limits (intelligence ceiling, temperament tendencies); environment (family, school, peers, culture) determines how much of that potential is realised.
- Bases of differences
- include language, caste, religion, community, gender, economic status, disability and geographical location—each influencing access, motivation and achievement.
- Gender is a social construct
- Biological sex is innate, but gender roles (what society expects from boys/girls) are learned through socialisation, media and school practices.
- Personality
- is the relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that makes each person unique; it influences classroom behaviour, peer relations and learning preferences.
- Type theories
- classify people into distinct categories (introvert/extrovert); Trait theories place individuals on continuous dimensions (more or less anxious); Self theories focus on self-concept and self-actualisation.
- Educational implication
- Teachers must use differentiated instruction, flexible grouping, multiple assessment modes and bias-free language to address individual differences.
- Language
- Mother-tongue vs medium of instruction; multilingual support needed
- Caste/Community
- Social prejudice affecting participation; hidden curriculum bias
- Religion
- Festival calendars, dietary practices, dress codes
- Gender
- Stereotyped subject choices; unequal participation in sports/science
- Economic status
- Access to books, nutrition, private tuition; absenteeism due to labour
Vygotsky — Socio-cultural Theory — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Social origin of learning
- All higher cognitive functions (language, reasoning, problem-solving) first appear on the social level (between people) before being internalised by the individual child.
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- The gap between what a learner can do independently (actual development level) and what they can do with guidance from a skilled partner (potential development level). This zone represents the "sweet spot" for instruction.
- More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
- Any person who has greater understanding or skill than the learner—could be a teacher, parent, peer, or even a sibling. The MKO guides learning within the ZPD.
- Scaffolding
- Temporary, adjustable support provided by the MKO to help learners accomplish tasks they cannot complete alone. Support is gradually withdrawn as competence increases.
- Language as a tool of thought
- Vygotsky saw language as the primary psychological tool. Private speech (talking to oneself) is not immature but a crucial step in internalising social speech into inner thought.
- Cultural tools
- Learning is mediated by cultural tools—language, symbols, writing, number systems—that vary across societies and shape cognitive development.
- Internalisation
- The process by which external social activities are transformed into internal mental functions. What happens first between people later happens within the individual.
- Full name
- Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Russian psychologist
- Core idea
- Learning leads development (contrast with Piaget: development leads learning)
- ZPD formula
- ZPD = Potential Development Level − Actual Development Level
- Scaffolding coined by
- Jerome Bruner (extending Vygotsky's ideas), not Vygotsky himself
- Private speech
- Self-directed speech that guides behaviour; peaks at ages 3-7, then becomes inner speech
Bruner — Discovery Learning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Discovery Learning Principle
- Children learn best by actively exploring, manipulating, and discovering concepts themselves rather than being told answers directly. The teacher acts as a facilitator, not a transmitter.
- Three Modes of Representation
- Bruner proposed that knowledge is encoded in three sequential modes — enactive (action-based), iconic (image-based), and symbolic (language/symbol-based). All three coexist in adults, but develop in this order in children.
- Enactive Mode (0–1 year onwards)
- Knowledge is stored through physical actions and motor responses. A child learns "ball" by holding, throwing, and catching it. Relevant for early childhood and hands-on activities.
- Iconic Mode (1–6 years onwards)
- Knowledge is stored as mental images and pictures. A child can visualise a ball without holding it. Diagrams, pictures, and visual aids support this mode.
- Symbolic Mode (7 years onwards)
- Knowledge is stored through symbols — words, numbers, and abstract codes. A child can understand "ball" as a written word or use the formula for a sphere's volume.
- Spiral Curriculum
- Any subject can be taught to any child at any stage in some intellectually honest form. Topics should be introduced early in simple form and revisited repeatedly at higher complexity levels.
- Scaffolding (linked concept)
- Though developed further by Wood, Bruner and Ross, scaffolding refers to temporary support given by teachers/adults that is gradually withdrawn as the learner gains competence.
- Readiness is Teachable
- Unlike Piaget who emphasised waiting for developmental readiness, Bruner believed appropriate instruction can accelerate readiness.
- Jerome Bruner
- American psychologist (1915–2016); key works include The Process of Education (1960)
- Enactive mode
- Action-based; learning by doing; dominant in infancy but used lifelong
- Iconic mode
- Image-based; mental pictures; dominant in early childhood
- Symbolic mode
- Symbol-based; language, math, logic; dominant from age 7 onwards
Learning and Pedagogy — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Children as active knowledge constructors
- Learning is not transmission from teacher to student. Children build understanding by connecting new information to prior knowledge, experimenting, questioning, and reflecting. This is the core constructivist principle.
- Learning is contextual and social
- Children learn better when content connects to their daily life, culture, and community. Vygotsky's idea that learning happens through social interaction underpins collaborative classroom strategies.
- Intrinsic motivation produces deeper learning
- When children learn because of curiosity, interest, or personal satisfaction (intrinsic), retention and understanding exceed that from rewards or fear of punishment (extrinsic).
- Cognition and emotion are inseparable
- A child who feels anxious, humiliated, or unsafe cannot learn effectively. Positive emotional climate directly supports cognitive engagement.
- Child-centred pedagogy shifts teacher's role
- The teacher becomes a facilitator, guide, and co-learner rather than the sole authority. This aligns with NCF 2005's vision.
- Activity-based learning engages multiple senses
- Doing, observing, discussing, and creating lead to stronger concept formation than passive listening.
- Classroom management is about enabling learning, not controlling behaviour
- Effective management creates a democratic, respectful, and inclusive environment where diverse learners thrive.
- Assessment should support learning, not just measure it
- Continuous, formative assessment helps teachers adjust pedagogy and helps students identify their own learning gaps.
- Intrinsic Motivation
- Driven by curiosity, interest, enjoyment, mastery—leads to self-directed learning
- Extrinsic Motivation
- Driven by rewards, grades, praise, punishment—may reduce long-term interest
- Maslow's Hierarchy
- Physiological → Safety → Belonging → Esteem → Self-actualisation; lower needs must be met before higher learning needs
- Achievement Motivation (McClelland)
- Need for achievement (nAch) varies among learners; high nAch students prefer moderate challenges
Constructivism — Child Development and Pedagogy · 11 cards
- Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted.
- Learners build new understanding by connecting new information to what they already know (prior knowledge or schema).
- Learning is an active process.
- Children learn best when they manipulate materials, ask questions, explore, and reflect—not when they passively listen to lectures.
- Experience and context matter.
- Meaningful learning occurs when content is connected to real-life situations and the learner's social and cultural background.
- Cognitive Constructivism (Piaget).
- Emphasises individual mental processes—assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration—as the child constructs knowledge through interaction with the physical world.
- Social Constructivism (Vygotsky).
- Stresses that learning is a social activity; knowledge is co-constructed through dialogue, collaboration, and guidance from more knowledgeable others (MKO).
- Discovery Learning (Bruner).
- Learners discover principles themselves; the teacher structures problems and provides scaffolding rather than direct answers.
- Role of the teacher shifts to facilitator.
- The teacher designs experiences, asks probing questions, and supports exploration instead of merely delivering content.
- Assessment is process-oriented.
- Portfolios, projects, and formative feedback replace rote memorisation tests; the focus is on understanding, not recall.
- Piaget
- Core Idea: Individual cognitive construction through stages · Key Term: Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation
- Vygotsky
- Core Idea: Social interaction drives learning · Key Term: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), Scaffolding
- Bruner
- Core Idea: Learning through discovery and inquiry · Key Term: Spiral Curriculum, Scaffolding