GTET flashcards
198 cards from 17 fact-checked topic notes · English
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Formative and Summative Assessment — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Assessment FOR Learning (Formative)
- Ongoing assessment during instruction that provides feedback to improve teaching and learning. The goal is to identify gaps while there is still time to address them.
- Assessment OF Learning (Summative)
- Assessment conducted at the end of a unit, term, or year to evaluate and certify what students have learned. It answers: "Did the student meet the learning objectives?"
- Feedback Loop
- Formative assessment creates a continuous feedback loop—teacher assesses → identifies gaps → adjusts instruction → reassesses. Summative assessment typically does not feed back into immediate instruction.
- Low Stakes vs High Stakes
- Formative assessments are low-stakes (no grades or minor weightage), encouraging students to take risks and learn from errors. Summative assessments are high-stakes (grades, promotion, certification).
- Timing Difference
- Formative = during the learning process; Summative = at the end of the learning process.
- Who Uses the Data
- Formative data is primarily for teachers and students to improve learning. Summative data is for teachers, parents, administrators, and external bodies for reporting and certification.
- Student Involvement
- Formative assessment often involves self-assessment and peer-assessment, making students active participants. Summative assessment is typically teacher-administered.
- Diagnostic Function
- While formative assessment is inherently diagnostic (finding where students struggle), summative assessment can also serve diagnostic purposes when results are analysed item-wise.
- Purpose
- Formative Assessment: Improve learning · Summative Assessment: Evaluate/certify learning
- Timing
- Formative Assessment: During instruction · Summative Assessment: After instruction
- Frequency
- Formative Assessment: Continuous, frequent · Summative Assessment: Periodic (end of unit/term/year)
- Stakes
- Formative Assessment: Low stakes · Summative Assessment: High stakes
Child Development — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Growth refers to quantitative changes
- measurable increases in size, height, weight, and physical dimensions. It is structural and stops after adolescence.
- Development refers to qualitative changes
- functional improvements in abilities, skills, behaviour, and mental processes. It continues throughout life.
- Growth and development are interrelated but not identical
- a child may grow physically without corresponding cognitive development, and vice versa.
- Development follows a predictable sequence
- but the rate varies among individuals—all children stand before walking, but the age at which they walk differs.
- Development proceeds from general to specific
- a baby first waves arms randomly (general) before deliberately grasping objects (specific).
- Development is a product of both heredity and environment
- nature provides the blueprint, nurture shapes the expression.
- Development is cumulative and continuous
- each stage builds upon previous stages; early experiences shape later development.
- All domains of development are interconnected
- physical, cognitive, emotional, social, language, and moral development influence each other.
- Nature
- Growth: Quantitative · Development: Qualitative
- Measurement
- Growth: Height, weight, size · Development: Skills, abilities, behaviour
- Duration
- Growth: Stops at maturity · Development: Lifelong process
- Direction
- Growth: Physical/structural · Development: Functional/psychological
Basis of Differences — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Individual differences are multidimensional
- No single factor (language, caste, or ability) operates in isolation. A child may simultaneously face language barriers, economic disadvantage, and gender-based expectations—these interact to shape learning.
- Language as a learning barrier
- Children whose home language differs from the medium of instruction face comprehension gaps. Mother-tongue instruction in early years improves cognitive development (supported by NEP 2020's emphasis on regional languages until Class 5).
- Caste and social stratification
- Children from SC/ST/OBC backgrounds often encounter discrimination, lower expectations from teachers, and reduced access to resources. The hidden curriculum of schools may reinforce social hierarchies.
- Gender shapes classroom experiences
- Socialisation creates different expectations for boys and girls. Girls may face restricted mobility, domestic responsibilities, and subject stereotyping (e.g., "girls are weak in maths"). Boys may face pressure against emotional expression.
- Community and cultural background
- Religious practices, festivals, dietary habits, and family structures vary across communities. Curriculum content that ignores minority experiences alienates learners.
- Ability differences span a spectrum
- This includes gifted learners, children with disabilities (visual, hearing, locomotor, intellectual), and those with specific learning difficulties (dyslexia) or attention difficulties (ADHD). Ability is not fixed—it develops with appropriate support.
- Socio-economic status underlies many differences
- Poverty affects nutrition, health, school attendance, access to books, and parental support. First-generation learners lack academic role models at home.
- Equity vs. equality
- Equality means treating everyone the same; equity means providing differentiated support so all can succeed. Effective pedagogy requires equity.
- Language
- Use multilingual resources; allow code-switching; mother-tongue foundation
- Caste
- Challenge stereotypes; ensure SC/ST representation in curriculum; monitor discrimination
- Gender
- Gender-neutral expectations; encourage girls in STEM; question textbook stereotypes
- Community
- Culturally responsive teaching; inclusive calendar; respect for dietary/religious practices
How Children Think and Learn — Child Development and Pedagogy · 8 cards
- Children as active knowledge constructors
- Children do not passively absorb information. They actively make sense of experiences by connecting new information with what they already know, creating personal meaning through exploration and experimentation.
- Prior knowledge as foundation
- Every child enters the classroom with existing ideas, beliefs, and mental frameworks (schemas). New learning builds upon, modifies, or sometimes conflicts with these pre-existing structures.
- Learning through activity and experience
- Concrete, hands-on experiences are essential, especially for younger children. Abstract concepts develop gradually from manipulation of physical objects and real-world exploration.
- Social nature of learning
- Children learn significantly through interaction with peers, teachers, and family. Discussion, collaboration, and dialogue help children refine their thinking and encounter alternative perspectives.
- Errors as learning opportunities
- Mistakes reveal children's thinking processes and current understanding. They are not failures but valuable windows into how the child is constructing knowledge.
- Individual pace and pathways
- Children construct knowledge at different rates and through different routes. No two children learn identically, even when given the same instruction.
- Language and thought connection
- Language is both a tool for communication and a medium for thinking. Children use self-talk (private speech) to guide their own problem-solving and gradually internalise this as thought.
- Motivation and curiosity
- Children are naturally curious. Intrinsic motivation to explore and understand drives deeper learning than external rewards or punishment.
Behaviourism — Child Development and Pedagogy · 11 cards
- Learning as behaviour change
- Behaviourists define learning as an observable, measurable change in behaviour—not as gaining knowledge or understanding internally.
- Stimulus-Response (S-R) bond
- All behaviourist theories share the core idea that learning involves forming connections between stimuli (environmental inputs) and responses (behavioural outputs).
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually producing a conditioned response automatically.
- Connectionism / Trial and Error (Thorndike)
- Learning happens through repeated attempts where successful responses are "stamped in" and unsuccessful ones are "stamped out" based on consequences.
- Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
- Learning is controlled by consequences—behaviours followed by reinforcement increase, while those followed by punishment decrease.
- Role of environment
- Behaviourism emphasises that the external environment shapes behaviour; the learner is relatively passive, responding to stimuli and consequences.
- Reinforcement vs Punishment
- Reinforcement strengthens behaviour (positive adds something pleasant, negative removes something unpleasant); punishment weakens behaviour.
- No focus on cognition
- Unlike constructivism or cognitive theories, behaviourism deliberately ignores thoughts, feelings and internal mental processes.
- Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
- Theory Name: Classical Conditioning · Key Experiment: Dog salivation experiment · Core Principle: Neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus produces conditioned response
- Edward Thorndike (1874–1949)
- Theory Name: Connectionism / Trial and Error · Key Experiment: Puzzle box with cats · Core Principle: Learning through trial and error; governed by Laws of Effect, Readiness and Exercise
- B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)
- Theory Name: Operant Conditioning · Key Experiment: Skinner Box with rats/pigeons · Core Principle: Behaviour shaped by reinforcement and punishment
Children with Learning Difficulties — Child Development and Pedagogy · 11 cards
- Learning difficulty vs intellectual disability
- Learning difficulties are specific processing problems in children with normal intelligence; intellectual disability involves below-average general cognitive functioning. Never confuse the two.
- Neurological basis
- All four conditions (dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, ADHD) have a neurological origin—they result from differences in brain structure or function, not from laziness, poor teaching, or lack of effort.
- Specificity principle
- Each learning difficulty affects a particular domain. A child with dyslexia may excel in mathematics; a child with dyscalculia may be an excellent reader.
- Early identification is crucial
- Signs often appear by ages 5–7. Early intervention leads to significantly better outcomes than delayed identification.
- Comorbidity
- Learning difficulties often co-occur. A child may have both dyslexia and ADHD, requiring combined intervention strategies.
- Strengths-based approach
- Children with learning difficulties often possess compensatory strengths—creativity, spatial reasoning, verbal skills, or problem-solving abilities.
- Multi-sensory teaching
- The most effective intervention approach uses visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile methods simultaneously.
- Dyslexia
- Core Difficulty: Reading and language processing · Key Signs: Letter/word reversals (b/d), slow reading, poor spelling, difficulty rhyming · Prevalence: 5–10% of children
- Dysgraphia
- Core Difficulty: Written expression · Key Signs: Poor handwriting, inconsistent spacing, difficulty organising thoughts on paper, slow writing speed · Prevalence: 5–20% of children
- Dyscalculia
- Core Difficulty: Mathematical reasoning · Key Signs: Difficulty with number sense, counting, memorising math facts, understanding place value · Prevalence: 3–6% of children
- ADHD
- Core Difficulty: Attention and impulse control · Key Signs: Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity; three types—predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive, combined · Prevalence: 5–7% of children
Measurement of Intelligence — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
- is a numerical score derived from standardised tests designed to measure cognitive abilities relative to age peers. It is not a fixed trait but can be influenced by education, environment and experience.
- Mental Age (MA)
- refers to the level of intellectual functioning a child demonstrates, regardless of chronological age. A 7-year-old solving problems typical of 9-year-olds has a mental age of 9.
- Chronological Age (CA)
- is simply the actual age of the child in years and months, used as the denominator in the classic IQ formula.
- Deviation IQ
- is the modern method where IQ is calculated based on how far an individual's score deviates from the average score of their age group, with 100 as the mean and 15 as the standard deviation.
- Standardisation
- means intelligence tests are administered to large representative samples to establish norms, ensuring scores can be meaningfully compared across populations.
- Reliability
- refers to the consistency of a test—whether it produces similar results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions.
- Validity
- asks whether the test actually measures intelligence or some other construct like memory, speed or cultural knowledge.
- Above 140
- Genius/Near Genius
- 120–139
- Superior/Very Superior
- 110–119
- Above Average
- 90–109
- Average/Normal
- 80–89
- Below Average
Theories of Learning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Behaviourism
- views learning as observable behaviour change caused by external stimuli; internal mental processes are not the focus.
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
- Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.
- Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
- Behaviour is shaped by consequences — reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it.
- Connectionism (Thorndike)
- Learning is forming stimulus-response (S-R) connections; strengthened by practice and satisfaction.
- Gestalt/Insight Learning (Köhler, Wertheimer)
- Learning happens through perception of the whole pattern; sudden insight solves problems, not trial-and-error.
- Cognitive Development (Piaget)
- Children construct knowledge through stages; learning must match the child's cognitive stage.
- Socio-cultural Theory (Vygotsky)
- Learning is social first; the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) defines what a child can do with guidance.
- Discovery Learning (Bruner)
- Children learn best by discovering concepts themselves; knowledge is represented enactively, iconically and symbolically.
- Constructivism
- Learners actively build knowledge from experience; teacher is a facilitator, not a transmitter.
- Pavlov
- Theory/Concept: Classical Conditioning · Key Terms: UCS, UCR, CS, CR; stimulus generalisation, extinction
- Skinner
- Theory/Concept: Operant Conditioning · Key Terms: Positive/negative reinforcement, punishment, shaping, schedules of reinforcement
- Thorndike
- Theory/Concept: Connectionism (Trial & Error) · Key Terms: Law of Readiness, Law of Exercise, Law of Effect
Gestalt and Insight Learning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Gestalt (German for "form" or "pattern")
- The mind organises sensory information into unified, meaningful wholes rather than processing isolated elements.
- Perception precedes learning
- Gestalt theorists believed that how we perceive a problem determines how we solve it. Reorganising perception leads to new understanding.
- Insight learning
- A sudden "aha!" moment where the solution appears after cognitive restructuring of the problem, without gradual trial-and-error.
- Köhler's chimpanzee experiments (1913–1920)
- Sultan the chimp solved problems (reaching bananas using sticks or stacked boxes) through sudden insight, not random attempts—contradicting Thorndike's trial-and-error theory.
- Four stages of insight
- Preparation (understanding the problem) → Incubation (unconscious processing) → Illumination (sudden solution) → Verification (testing the solution).
- Productive vs reproductive thinking
- Gestalt psychologists valued productive thinking (generating new solutions through restructuring) over reproductive thinking (applying memorised procedures).
- Transposition
- Once insight is achieved, learners can transfer the principle to new situations—demonstrating genuine understanding, not rote memory.
- Field theory connection
- Kurt Lewin extended Gestalt ideas into motivation and behaviour, viewing the learner within a dynamic psychological "field" of forces.
- Proximity
- Meaning: Elements close together are perceived as a group · Classroom Example: Grouping related words on the board
- Similarity
- Meaning: Similar items are perceived as belonging together · Classroom Example: Using same colour for related concepts
- Closure
- Meaning: Mind fills in gaps to perceive complete figures · Classroom Example: Incomplete diagrams prompt students to complete patterns
- Continuity
- Meaning: Elements arranged in a line/curve are seen as related · Classroom Example: Flow charts, timelines
Heredity and Environment — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Heredity
- refers to the biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genes. It sets the biological potential or upper limit of development.
- Environment
- includes all external factors—family, school, peers, culture, nutrition, and experiences—that influence development from conception onwards.
- Nature vs Nurture
- is the classic debate: whether heredity (nature) or environment (nurture) is more influential. Current consensus favours interaction, not opposition.
- Genotype
- is the genetic makeup an individual inherits; phenotype is the observable expression of traits, shaped by both genes and environment.
- Critical/Sensitive Periods
- are time windows when environmental input has maximum impact on development (e.g., language acquisition in early childhood).
- Maturation
- is the unfolding of genetically programmed changes (e.g., puberty). Environment can support or hinder but cannot fundamentally alter the sequence.
- Individual Differences
- arise from the unique combination of hereditary potential and environmental experiences—no two children are alike.
- Plasticity
- refers to the brain's ability to change in response to experience, especially strong in early years—highlighting environment's power even within genetic limits.
- Source
- Heredity: Genes (DNA) from parents · Environment: Family, school, society, nutrition, culture
- Determines
- Heredity: Biological potential, physical features, temperament tendencies · Environment: Actualisation of potential, learned behaviours, skills
- Fixed/Flexible
- Heredity: Relatively fixed at conception · Environment: Modifiable throughout life
- Examples
- Heredity: Eye colour, blood group, inherited diseases, height potential · Environment: Language, values, academic achievement, social skills
Gifted and Talented Children — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Definition of Giftedness
- Gifted children demonstrate outstanding ability or potential in one or more domains — intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership, or specific academic fields — compared to same-age peers.
- Multi-dimensional Nature
- Giftedness is not limited to high IQ. Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory supports recognising talent in music, spatial reasoning, bodily-kinaesthetic skills, interpersonal abilities, and more.
- Asynchronous Development
- Gifted children often show uneven development — intellectually advanced but emotionally or socially at age-appropriate or even delayed levels. A 7-year-old may read at a 12-year-old level but struggle with peer relationships.
- Underachievement Risk
- Without appropriate challenge, gifted students may become bored, disengaged, or develop behavioural issues. They may deliberately underperform to fit in socially.
- Twice-Exceptional (2e) Learners
- Some gifted children also have learning disabilities (e.g., gifted with dyslexia). Their giftedness may mask the disability, or the disability may mask the giftedness.
- Intrinsic Motivation
- Gifted learners often possess high intrinsic motivation for areas of interest but may resist tasks they find unchallenging or irrelevant.
- Need for Differentiation
- Standard curriculum pacing is often too slow; gifted children need acceleration, enrichment, or curriculum compacting to remain engaged.
- Renzulli's Three-Ring Model
- Giftedness = Above-average ability + Task commitment + Creativity (all three must intersect)
- Percentage in population
- Approximately 2-5% of children are considered gifted by most definitions
- IQ threshold (traditional)
- IQ of 130 or above (2 standard deviations above mean of 100)
- NCERT/NCF Position
- Emphasises identification and nurturing of talent within inclusive classrooms
- Types of Giftedness
- Intellectual, academic, creative, artistic, leadership, psychomotor
Creativity — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Definition of Creativity
- The ability to think divergently, produce original ideas, and find novel solutions to problems. It involves combining existing knowledge in new ways to create something unique and meaningful.
- Creativity vs Intelligence
- High intelligence does not guarantee high creativity. A minimum level of intelligence (around IQ 120) is needed for creative work, but beyond this threshold, creativity depends on other factors. This is called the threshold theory.
- Guilford's Divergent Thinking
- J.P. Guilford distinguished between convergent thinking (single correct answer) and divergent thinking (multiple possible solutions). Creativity is primarily associated with divergent thinking.
- Four Components of Creativity (Guilford)
- Fluency (quantity of ideas), Flexibility (variety of categories), Originality (uniqueness of ideas), and Elaboration (adding details to ideas).
- Torrance's Creative Thinking
- E. Paul Torrance developed the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) and emphasised that creativity can be nurtured through appropriate educational practices.
- Stages of Creative Process (Wallas)
- Preparation → Incubation → Illumination → Verification. Understanding these stages helps teachers provide appropriate time and space for creative thinking.
- Every Child is Creative
- Creativity exists on a continuum. All children possess creative potential; the degree varies. Teachers must identify and nurture this potential rather than label some children as "creative" and others as "not creative."
- Creativity is Domain-Specific
- A child may show creativity in art but not in mathematics. Teachers should provide diverse opportunities for expression.
- Guilford's Four Factors
- Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, Elaboration
- Wallas's Four Stages
- Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, Verification
- Threshold Theory
- IQ ~120 is minimum for high creativity; beyond this, correlation weakens
- Torrance Tests (TTCT)
- Most widely used creativity assessment tool
Individual Differences and Personality — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Individual differences
- refer to the variations among learners in terms of abilities, interests, aptitudes, attitudes, and personality traits that make each child unique.
- Heredity and environment interact
- to produce individual differences—nature provides the raw material while nurture shapes its expression through experiences, culture, and education.
- Gender is a social construct
- distinct from biological sex; gender roles are learned through socialisation while sex refers to biological characteristics.
- Personality
- is the unique, relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that characterises an individual and distinguishes them from others.
- Type theories
- classify personalities into discrete categories (introvert/extrovert), while trait theories view personality as a combination of continuous dimensions.
- Self-concept
- is how individuals perceive themselves, developed through experiences and social interactions, and significantly influences learning and motivation.
- Multi-cultural classrooms
- require teachers to be sensitive to differences in language, religion, caste, and community backgrounds without stereotyping or discriminating.
- Language
- Use mother tongue initially; bilingual approach; avoid linguistic discrimination
- Caste/Community
- Equal opportunities; challenge stereotypes; culturally responsive teaching
- Gender
- Avoid gender bias in examples, activities, and expectations
- Ability
- Differentiated instruction; varied pace and methods
- Socio-economic status
- Provide equitable resources; avoid assumptions about home support
Vygotsky — Socio-cultural Theory — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Social origin of cognition
- Higher mental functions (reasoning, problem-solving, voluntary attention) develop first through social interaction, then become internalised. Learning leads development, not the reverse.
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- The gap between what a child can do independently (actual developmental level) and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable other (potential developmental level).
- More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
- Any person with greater understanding—teacher, parent, peer, or even a computer program—who assists the learner within their ZPD.
- Scaffolding
- Temporary, adjustable support provided by the MKO that is gradually withdrawn as the learner gains competence. The term was coined by Bruner based on Vygotsky's ideas.
- Language as a tool for thought
- Language is the primary cultural tool for cognitive development. Private speech (talking to oneself) helps children regulate their thinking and behaviour.
- Cultural tools
- Signs, symbols, language, writing, and number systems are cultural tools that shape how children think. Cognitive development varies across cultures based on available tools.
- Internalisation
- The process by which external social activities become internal mental functions. What children do with others today, they can do alone tomorrow.
- ZPD
- Definition: Distance between actual and potential development · Exam Tip: Always involves assistance; independent work is NOT in ZPD
- Actual Development Level
- Definition: What child can do without help · Exam Tip: Assessed through independent problem-solving
- Potential Development Level
- Definition: What child can do with guidance · Exam Tip: Upper limit of ZPD
- Private Speech
- Definition: Self-directed talk during problem-solving · Exam Tip: Sign of cognitive development, not immaturity
- MKO
- Definition: Anyone with more knowledge than the learner · Exam Tip: Not always the teacher—can be a peer
Bruner — Discovery Learning — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Discovery Learning
- Students construct knowledge through active exploration, experimentation, and problem-solving rather than direct instruction. The teacher acts as a facilitator, not a lecturer.
- Three Modes of Representation
- Bruner proposed that humans represent knowledge in three ways—enactive (action-based), iconic (image-based), and symbolic (language/symbol-based). These develop sequentially but all three remain available throughout life.
- Enactive Mode (0–1 year)
- Knowledge is stored through physical actions and motor responses. A child learns "ball" by holding, throwing, and catching it.
- Iconic Mode (1–6 years)
- Knowledge is stored as mental images and pictures. A child can recognise a ball from a photograph without needing to touch it.
- Symbolic Mode (7 years onwards)
- Knowledge is stored through symbols, language, and abstract codes. A child can understand the word "ball" or mathematical symbols without concrete objects.
- Spiral Curriculum
- Complex topics are introduced in simple form early and revisited repeatedly at increasing levels of complexity. Each revisit builds on prior understanding and adds depth.
- Scaffolding
- (related concept): Coined by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), not by Vygotsky, though it builds on his ZPD—temporary support structures help learners reach beyond their current ability until they can perform independently.
- Readiness for Learning
- Bruner believed intellectual development can be accelerated through appropriate instruction. He famously stated that any subject can be taught effectively to any child at any stage of development.
- Enactive mode
- Learning through doing, touching, manipulating (action-based)
- Iconic mode
- Learning through images, diagrams, pictures (image-based)
- Symbolic mode
- Learning through words, numbers, symbols (language-based)
- Teacher's role
- Facilitator, guide, scaffold-provider—not information-giver
Learning and Pedagogy — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Children as Active Constructors
- Children build knowledge through experience, not by passively absorbing information. They connect new learning to existing mental frameworks (schemas) and reconstruct understanding through interaction with environment and peers.
- Learning is Social
- Vygotsky's insight that learning happens through social interaction applies directly to classroom pedagogy. Peer discussion, group work, and teacher scaffolding enable learning beyond what a child can achieve alone.
- Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation
- Intrinsic motivation (curiosity, interest, mastery) produces deeper, lasting learning. Extrinsic motivation (marks, rewards, punishment) may produce short-term compliance but undermines genuine engagement.
- Child-Centred Education
- The learner's needs, interests, and developmental stage guide curriculum and teaching—not rigid syllabus completion. Teachers facilitate rather than dictate.
- Activity-Based Learning
- Children learn by doing—manipulating objects, conducting experiments, creating projects—not just listening and memorising.
- Progressive Pedagogy
- Education should develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and democratic values rather than mere information recall. Connects to Dewey's philosophy of learning through experience.
- Discipline as Self-Regulation
- Effective classroom management develops internal discipline in students rather than relying on fear or external control.
- NCF 2005
- Advocates constructivist, child-centred pedagogy; criticises rote learning
- Zone of Proximal Development
- Gap between what child can do alone vs with guidance—teaching should target this zone
- Scaffolding
- Temporary support withdrawn as learner gains competence
- Maslow's Hierarchy
- Basic needs (food, safety, belonging) must be met before learning can occur
- Attribution Theory
- How students explain success/failure affects future motivation
Constructivism — Child Development and Pedagogy · 12 cards
- Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted
- Learners build new understanding by connecting new information to their existing mental frameworks (schemas). Knowledge cannot simply be "poured into" a student's mind.
- Learning is an active process
- Students must engage mentally—questioning, exploring, experimenting—rather than sitting passively. Active involvement is essential for meaningful learning.
- Prior knowledge matters
- What a child already knows determines what they can learn. New learning must connect to existing schemas or the learner cannot make sense of it.
- Social interaction enhances learning
- Vygotsky's social constructivism emphasises that knowledge is co-constructed through dialogue, collaboration, and cultural tools like language.
- Teacher as facilitator, not instructor
- The teacher's role shifts from delivering content to creating environments where learners can explore, discover, and construct meaning themselves.
- Multiple perspectives are valuable
- Constructivism acknowledges that different learners may construct different but equally valid understandings based on their unique experiences and contexts.
- Errors are learning opportunities
- Mistakes reveal how students are thinking and provide valuable entry points for deeper understanding, not failures to be punished.
- Core principle
- Learners actively construct knowledge through experience
- Cognitive constructivism
- Piaget—individual construction through assimilation and accommodation
- Social constructivism
- Vygotsky—knowledge constructed through social interaction and ZPD
- Discovery learning
- Bruner—learners discover principles through guided exploration
- Schema
- Mental framework that organises and interprets information