Maratha Empire — Study Notes

Overview

The Maratha Empire was one of the most formidable regional powers in 17th and 18th century India, challenging Mughal supremacy and establishing Hindu self-rule across large parts of the subcontinent. For UPSSSC PET, this topic carries guaranteed questions on Shivaji's administration and military innovations, the Peshwa administrative system, and the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) — which marked the end of Maratha expansion dreams in northern India.

Students must master four key areas: Shivaji's foundation and guerrilla warfare tactics (1630–1680), the rise of Peshwa dominance after 1713, the confederacy structure that emerged in the 18th century, and the decisive defeat at Panipat. Focus on chronology, key battles, administrative terms (Ashtapradhan, Chauth, Sardeshmukhi), and the reasons for Maratha decline. This topic typically appears in 2–3 questions covering dates, personalities, and cause-effect relationships.

Understand the Marathas as both nation-builders and decentralised confederates — this dual nature explains both their rapid rise and eventual fragmentation. The topic connects directly to British expansion, as Maratha weakness after 1761 created the vacuum the East India Company exploited in the early 19th century.

Key Concepts

• **Shivaji's state-building (1645–1680)**: Established independent Maratha kingdom in western Deccan by exploiting Mughal-Bijapur conflicts; crowned Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigad; created navy and forts network; introduced land revenue reforms (Ryotwari system with direct state-peasant contact).

• **Guerrilla warfare tactics (Ganimi Kava)**: Fast-moving cavalry raids, hill-fort strongholds, surprise attacks on larger armies; avoided pitched battles against superior Mughal forces; used local terrain knowledge as strategic advantage.

• **Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight)**: Peshwa (prime minister), Amatya (finance), Sachiv (correspondence), Mantri (interior), Senapati (military commander), Sumant (foreign affairs), Nyayadhish (justice), Panditrao (religious affairs) — no hereditary posts except Nyayadhish and Panditrao.

• **Chauth and Sardeshmukhi**: Chauth = 25% of land revenue collected from non-Maratha territories as protection money; Sardeshmukhi = additional 10% claimed as hereditary right of Maratha sardars; became major revenue source for expansion.

• **Peshwa ascendancy (1713–1818)**: After Shahu's succession dispute, Balaji Vishwanath (first hereditary Peshwa) made the office dominant; Peshwas became de facto rulers while Chhatrapati became ceremonial; shifted capital to Pune from Satara.

• **Maratha Confederacy structure**: Five major chieftains — Peshwa (Pune), Gaekwad (Baroda), Bhonsle (Nagpur), Holkar (Indore), Scindia (Gwalior) — operated semi-independently with loose coordination; collected revenue from assigned territories; weakened central command.

• **Northern expansion (1720–1760)**: Baji Rao I extended Maratha power to Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa, Bundelkhand; extracted Chauth from Mughal provinces; defeated Nizam at Bhopal (1738); controlled vast territory from Attock to Cuttack.

• **Third Battle of Panipat (1761)**: Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan defeated combined Maratha forces under Sadashiv Rao Bhau; over 40,000 Maratha soldiers killed; shattered dreams of Maratha empire in north India; created power vacuum exploited by British.

Formulas / Key Facts

1. **Shivaji's birth and coronation**: Born 1630 (Shivneri Fort); coronation as Chhatrapati 1674 at Raigad; died 1680 at age 50.

2. **Major battles — Shivaji era**: Battle of Pratapgad (1659, killed Afzal Khan); Battle of Pavan Khind (1660, Baji Prabhu's sacrifice); Surat sack (1664, 1670); Treaty of Purandar (1665 with Jai Singh); escape from Agra (1666).

3. **Peshwa chronology**: Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720), Baji Rao I (1720–1740), Balaji Baji Rao/Nana Saheb (1740–1761), Madhav Rao I (1761–1772), brief recovery, then decline under later Peshwas.

4. **Third Battle of Panipat date**: 14 January 1761; Maratha commander Sadashiv Rao Bhau and young Peshwa's son Vishwas Rao killed; Ahmad Shah Abdali won decisively.

5. **Maratha Confederacy members**: Peshwa (Pune/Satara), Gaekwad (Baroda/Gujarat), Bhonsle (Nagpur/Central Provinces), Holkar (Indore/Malwa), Scindia (Gwalior/North).

6. **Administrative innovations**: Abolished jagirdari system; introduced Ryotwari (state-peasant direct settlement); maintained detailed land records; promoted Marathi and Modi script in administration.

7. **Anglo-Maratha Wars**: First (1775–1782, Treaty of Salbai), Second (1803–1805, British gained territories), Third (1817–1818, complete Maratha defeat, Peshwa abolished).

8. **Revenue terms**: Chauth = 1/4th of revenue; Sardeshmukhi = 1/10th additional; total extraction 35% from non-Maratha lands.

Worked Examples

**Example 1: Chronological sequence question**

*Q: Arrange in chronological order: (A) Third Battle of Panipat (B) Shivaji's coronation (C) Treaty of Salbai (D) Baji Rao I's death*

**Solution**:

• Shivaji's coronation = 1674 (B)
• Baji Rao I's death = 1740 (D)
• Third Battle of Panipat = 1761 (A)
• Treaty of Salbai = 1782 (C)

**Correct order: B-D-A-C**

**Example 2: Cause-effect relationship**

*Q: What was the immediate consequence of the Third Battle of Panipat on Maratha power?*

**Solution**: The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) caused: 1. Death of top Maratha military leadership (Sadashiv Rao Bhau, Vishwas Rao) 2. Loss of 40,000+ soldiers, weakening military capacity 3. End of Maratha northern expansion ambitions 4. Strengthening of regional Maratha chiefs (confederacy over central control) 5. Political vacuum in north India that British later exploited

**Answer: Immediate end to Maratha imperial ambitions in northern India and strengthening of confederacy over central Peshwa authority.**

**Example 3: Administrative terminology**

*Q: Distinguish between Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in Maratha revenue system.*

**Solution**:

• **Chauth**: 25% of assessed land revenue; collected as protection money from non-Maratha territories; justified as military service charge to prevent raids
• **Sardeshmukhi**: Additional 10% levy; claimed as hereditary right of Maratha sardars (traditional revenue collectors)
• **Combined effect**: Total 35% extraction from territories not under direct Maratha administration; major source of income for expansion

Common Mistakes

1. **Confusing Shivaji with later Peshwas → Fix**: Shivaji (1630–1680) founded the kingdom and was Chhatrapati (emperor). Peshwas came later (post-1713) and were prime ministers who became hereditary rulers, reducing the Chhatrapati to a figurehead.

2. **Mixing up Panipat battles → Fix**: Three Battles of Panipat — First (1526, Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi), Second (1556, Akbar vs Hemu), Third (1761, Abdali vs Marathas). Only the third involves Marathas.

3. **Thinking Marathas were centralized empire → Fix**: After Shivaji's death and especially after 1740, Marathas became a loose confederacy of five major houses operating independently, which weakened coordinated military action.

4. **Assuming Panipat ended Maratha power immediately → Fix**: Marathas recovered partially under Madhav Rao I (1761–1772), but never regained northern dominance. Final collapse came in Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818).

5. **Ignoring administrative innovations → Fix**: Shivaji's Ryotwari system, abolition of jagirdari, Ashtapradhan council, and promotion of Marathi were significant administrative reforms that influenced later Indian governance.

Quick Reference

• **Shivaji reign**: 1674–1680 as Chhatrapati; guerrilla warfare expert; built 300+ forts; established Maratha Swarajya.
• **Ashtapradhan**: Eight-minister council; non-hereditary (except two); collective decision-making body.
• **Peshwa dominance**: Started with Balaji Vishwanath (1713); Baji Rao I (1720–1740) expanded north to Delhi.
• **Third Panipat**: 14 January 1761; Abdali defeated Marathas; 40,000+ Maratha casualties; end of northern expansion.
• **Maratha Confederacy**: Five powers — Peshwa, Gaekwad, Bhonsle, Holkar, Scindia — semi-independent after 1740.
• **Final defeat**: Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818); Peshwa abolished; territories annexed by British.